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FRENCH  GRAMMAR 


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LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 

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Received  ^■^,JyT.^ '  '^90.  • 

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. .^....^...v^o   ^^^A^.jy.^.      luiiiu.     uuatu:> 55 

Shute.    Anglo-Saxon  Manual.     lamo i  50 

Skinner.    Approximate  Computations.     i6mo i  20 

Siglar.     English  Grammar.     lamo.     Boards 70 

Taine.     English  Literature,     Condensed  for  Schools.     i2mo 225 

White.     Classic  Literature.     i2mo 225 

yonge(Miss).  Landmarks  of  History.  L  Ancient,  i2mo,  95c,  ;  IL  Medi- 
aeval, lamo,  $1.10;    in.  Modem,  i2mo I  40 

FRENCH. 

iEsop.     Fables  in  French.     With  a  Dictionary.     i8mo o  65 

Bibliotheque  d' Instruction  et  de  Recreation.  A  collection  of  the  best  works 
in  French  Fictitious  Literature,  for  use  in  American  Schools,  and  pub- 
lished in  handsome  lamos.  Cloth.  Those  marked  (i)  are  fitted  for 
readers  under  sixteen  years  ,  those  marked  (2)  for  older  ones. 

(2)  Ackard.     Clos-Pommier,  et  les  Prisonniers,  par  Xavier  de  Maistre 85 

\x)  Bedoliere.     Mere  Michel.     New  Vocabulary,  by  Pylodet 75 

(i)  Clement.     Biographies  des  Musiciens  Cel^bres i  40 

(2)  Erckman-Chatrtan     Consent  de  1813.     With  Notes i  10 

(i)  Fallet.     Princes  de  I'Art i  50 

(2}  FeuiUet.     Romnn  d'un  Jeune  Homme  Pauvre 1  10 

(i)  Foa.     Contes  Biographiques.      With  Vocabulary 100 

(1 )  Petit  Robinson  de  Paris.     With  Vocabulary 85 

(i)  Mace,     Bouchee  de  Pain.      With  Vocabulary 125 

(i)  Porchat.     Trois  Mois  sous  la  Neige 85 

(1)  Pressense.     Rosa.      With  Vocabulary.     By  L.  Pylodet i  25 

\\)  Saint-Germain.     Pour  une  Epingle.     With  Vocabulary 100 

(2)  Sand.     Petite  Fadette i  25 

(i)  Segur.     Contes  (,Petites  Filles  Mod^es  ;  Les  Gouters  dela  Grand'-Mfere)  i  00 

(2)  Souvestre.    Philosophe  sous  les  Toils 75 

I 


HENRY  HOLT  &  CO.,   Publishers,         ^  '^5 
25  Bond  St.,  New   York.  i  60 

c   40 

65 

50 

Sadler.    Translating  English  into  French.     i2mo i  25 

2 


Announcement. 


The  author  of  this  book  has  in  preparation  a  series  of 
Reading  Selections,  with  an  adequate  Dictionary.  It  is 
intended  to  be  printed  in  one  volume  with  the  Grammar, 
making  a  complete  text-book  for  classes  in  French. 
The  Selections  will  be  mostly  taken  from  current,  litera- 
ture, and  the  Dictionary  will  give  both  Etymology  and 
Pronunciation. 


FRENCH   GRAMMAR 


Colleges,  Academies,  Schools,  Etc. 


WITH     A     SERIES     OF     EXERCISES 


BT 


E.   JANES,    A.M 


NEW  YORK 
HENEY    HOLT    AND    COMPANY 

F.  W.  CHKISTERN 
BOSTON  :  SCHCENHOP  &  MCELLER 


COFYTIIQHT.    1877, 

By  Henrt  Holt, 


Now  York  :  J.  J.  Llttlo  &  Co.,  Pi-lnterfl, 
10  to  SO  Aatoi-  Place. 


PEEFAOE. 


This  book  is  not  a  new  "instruction-book,"  but  an 
attempt  at  a  real  grammar  of  the  French  language,  accom- 
panied by  a  copious  series  of  exercises.  The  work  is  in- 
tended for  beginners  in  the  study  of  French,  but  not  for 
small  children,  nor  for  those  who  desire  merely  to  acquire 
a  few  conversational  phrases.  It  is  also  meant  to  be  a 
complete  text-book,  and  book  of  reference,  in  this  subject, 
and  is  believed  to  be  far  more  complete  than  any  hereto- 
fore published  in  English. 

The  plan  of  the  present  work  does  not  include  instruc- 
tion in  general  grammar,  but  the  learner  is  supposed  to  be 
already  acquainted  with  the  use  and  meaning  of  ordinary 
grammatical  terms,  such  as  tense,  mode,  subject,  object, 
noun,  article,  govern,  modify,  agree,  and  the  like.  All 
these  can  perhaps  be  best  learned  from  Professor  Whit- 
ney's "Essentials  of  English  Grammar."  They  form 
properly  no  part  of  the  study  of  French.  The  Author  has 
endeavored  to  keep  in  mind  that  the  office  of  a  gramma- 
rian is  to  describe  the  facts  of  a  language,  not  to  legislate 
for  it,  and  also  that  this  description  needs  abundant  illus- 
trations. Numerous  examples  therefore  accompany  almost 
every  section,  and  where  the  French  idiom  seems  to  be 


lY  PEEFACE. 

farthest  removed  from  the  English,  or  most  difficult  for 
the  English-speaking  student  to  apprehend,  the  examples 
sometimes  occupy  a  good  deal  of  space. 

Repetition  is  not  a  part  of  the  plan,  even  of  the  Exer- 
cises. The  judicious  teacher  is  the  best  judge  of  how 
often  each  class  may  require  to  review,  and  will  find  no 
difficulty  in  constructing  oral  exercises  adapted  to  the 
capacity  and  the  needs  of  his  pupils. 

Special  attention  is  asked  to  the  fact  that  the  Exercises, 
as  also  the  examples  in  the  body  of  the  Grammar,  are 
largely  drawn  from  the  works  of  tlie  best  French  writers, 
whose  names  are  frequently  appended.  This  is  thought 
to  be  a  feature  of  considerable  importance. 

The  Latin  has  been  used  as  far  as  seemed  expedient, 
under  the  impression  that  most  of  those  who  will  use  this 
book  will  have  some  slight  knowledge  of  Latin.  This  is 
believed  to  be  a  new  and  very  important  feature  of  the 
present  work  ;  and  yet  the  Author  has  endeavored  not  to 
introduce  the  Latin  in  such  a  way  as  seriously  to  injure 
the  book  for  those  not  familiar  with  that  language. 

The  materials  of  this  book  have  been  mostly  taken  from 
Matzner's  "Franzosiche  Grammatik."  Some  assistance 
has  also  been  derived,  especially  in  the  examples  and  Exer- 
cises, from  Bescherelle's  '^Grammaire  Rationale."  Very 
little  use  has  been  made  of  the  ordinary  "instruction- 
books,"  which  have  done  so  much  to  obscure  the  beautiful 
and  philosophical  structure  of  the  French  language,  and 
to  make  its  acquisition  a  mere  memorizing  of  phrases  and 
tangled,  unexplained  idioms. 


PEEFACE.  V 

The  Author  feels  himself  under  great  obligations  to  Pro- 
fessor W.  D.  Whitney  and  Professor  E.  B.  Coe,  of  Yale 
College,  who  examined  the  manuscript  at  an  early  stage 
of  its  progress,  and  whose  kind  encouragement  has  helped 
to  sustain  him  in  his  long  labors,  and  whose  numerous 
suggestions  and  corrections  have  been  gladly  received  and 
carefully  adopted. 


One  phrase  of  frequent  occurrence  in  connection  with 

the  subject  of  elision,  seems  to  require  notice.     *^ Before 

a  vowel  sound  "  has  been  used  in  place  of  the  more  usual 

but  hardly  more  correct,  "before  a  word  beginning  with 

a  vowel  or  h  mute."     Of  course  the  so-called  h  aspirate 

forms  an  exception  to  all  such  rules,  but  an  exception 

which  cannot  be  accurately  described  in  a  word  ;  and  the 

'*  aspirated "  h  is  really  quite  as  *^  mute "  as  the  unaspi- 

rated. 

E.  Ja]^es. 
June  1, 1877. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/frenchgrammarforOOjanerich 


_,RA 

f  OF  THB 

nNIVERSlTT 
Of 


PKELIMINAKY    CHAPTER. 

KEY    TO    THE    PRONUNCIATION. 

1,  Vowel  Sounds. 

a, — Generally  like  'a'  in  'abbey,'  'lamb/  but  often  like 

*a,'in  'ah/  'far.' 
a, — Always  like  *a'  in  'abbey.' 
&, — Always  like  'a'  in  'far/  'father.' 
6, — Always  like  'a'  in  'fate/  'name.' 
6, — Varying  from  the  sound  of  '  e '  in  '  there '  to  that  of 

'e'in  'ebb.' 
e, — Same  as  d,  but  always  long. 
e, — Generally  like  '  u '  in  '  but ; '   often  the  same  as  6, 

especially  in  monosyllables ;  often  same  as  6,  espe- 
cially in  terminations. 
i, — Always  like  'i'  in  'machine/  either  long  or  short, 
i, — Same  sound  as  i,  but  always  long. 
0, — Generally  like  'o'  in  'rob/  often  like  'o'  in  'rose.' 
0, — Always  long,  like  'o'  in  'rose.' 
u, — French  '  u,'  a    sound    unknown  in  English. 
u, — Same  sound,  but  always  long, 
y, — Always  same  as  i,  but  between  two  Yowels  equal  to 

two  i's. 
ei, — Generally  same  as  6,  often  same  as  h. 
ai, — At  the  end  of  words  the  same  sound  as  6,  elsewhere 

the  same  as  6. 
ai, — Same  sound  as  ai,  but  always  long, 
au,  eau, — Always  like  'o'  in  'note.' 
eu,  oeu, — French  'eu,'  a  sound  unknown  in  English,  but 

nearly  like  'u'  in  'fur.' 

Note. — In  the  parts  of  avoir,  'to  have,'  eu  has  the  sound 
1 


2  FREi^CH   GEAMMAR. 

OH, — Always  like  'oo'  in  'moon.' 

oi, — Always  like  'wa'  in  'was/  'what.' 

ua,  ue,  ui,  no, — Nearly  always  preceded  by  g  or  q,  in  which 
case  the  u  is  generally  silent,  and  the  sound  is  like 
ka,  k6,  ki,  ko,  ga,  gh6,  ghi,  go.  When  the  u  is 
sounded  it  is  like  English  'w,'  as  in  'was,'  'waste,' 
'weep,!  'watch.' 


im 

in 

ym 

aim 

ain 

ein 

(i)eii 

am 
an 
em 
en 


2,  Nasal  Sounds. 


All  alike,  the  "first  nasal  sound;"  like  'a'  in 
'  fan,'  nasalized.  A  sound  not  heard  separately  in 
English,  but  joined  with  a  following  consonant, 
in  such  words  as  'anger.' 


All  alike,  the  "second  nasal  sound;"  like  'a' 
in  'watch,'  'what,'  nasalized.  Sometimes  heard 
in  '  Concord.' 


)       Both  alike,  the  "  thii 
)  in  'war,'  nasalized. 


om      )       Both  alike,  the  "third  nasal  sound;"  like  'a 
on 


um 
nn 
eun 


All  alike,   the    "fourth    nasal    sound;"    like 
French  '  en,'  nasalized. 


3.  Consonant  Sounds. 

Consonants  are  pronounced,  for  the  most  part,  the 
same  in  French  as  in  English  (except  m  and  n  nasal,  as 
above). 

At  the  end  of  words,  however,  consonants  are  generally 
silent. 

The  following  need  special  notice  here  : 

ch, — Always  like  'sh'  in  'shun.' 

h, — Always  silent,  except  in  some  names. 

j, — Always  like  '  z '  in  '  azure.' 

g, — Before  i  or  e,  like  French  j. 


KEY  TO   THE   PEONUi^CIATIOl^.  3 

(i)lle, — At  the  end  of  words,  and  often  in  the  middle,  11 
preceded  by  i  has  a  **  liquid  sound/*  unknown  in 
English,  but  similar  to  *  yu '  in  *  young.' 
il, — 1  final  has  often  the  '^liquid   sound,"  like  11,  when 

preceded  bj  i. 
gn, — Always  liquid,  like  ^ni'  in  ^ union.' 
s, — Between  two  vowels  almost  always  like  z  ;  otherwise 

generally  like  ^  s '  in  '  sin.' 
X, — Generally  like   'gs,'  but  following  nearly  the  same 
rules  as  in  English. 
Foreign  words  and  names  are,  for  the  most  part,  pro- 
nounced as  much  as  possible  like  French  words. 

Many  words,  however,  especially  from  the  Latin  and 
Greek,  not  having  become  well  domiciled  in  French,  are 
pronounced  more  or  less  as  in  the  languages  from  which 
they  are  taken. 

Special  rules  and  exceptions  will  be  found  in  the  next 
chapter,  on  ^* Pronunciation." 


OP  THK 

"OTNIVERSITY 


CHAPTEE  L 

ORTHOGRAPHY  AND  PRONUNCIATION. 

4.  Letters. — French  is  written  with  the  same  letters  as 
English,  but  W  and  K  are  found  only  in  foreign  words. 

5.  Capitals. — Capital  letters  are  used  as  in  English,  with 
the  following  exceptions  : 

They  are  not  used — 

1.  In  titles  of  persons,  as — 

L'amiral  Nelson,  Admiral  Nelson. 
Le  general  Enox,  General  Knox. 

2.  In  adjectives  derived  from  proper  names,  as — 

frangais,  French.  Chretien,  Christian. 

3.  In  the  names  of  the  days,  the  seasons,  and  the  points 
of  the  compass,  as — 

Le  printemps.  Spring.  Le  sud,  the  South. 

Le  lundi,  Monday.  L'ete,  Summer. 

Note. — The  names  of  the  months  are  begun  with  capitals,  as — 
Mai,  May.  Juin,  June. 

4.  In  the  personal  pronoun  je,  '  I,'  and  the  interjection 
0, '0,'as— 

II  dit,  o,  je  suis,  etc.,  He  said,  O,  I  am,  etc. 

6.  Accent. — There  is  no  accent  in  French,  in  the  Eng- 
lish sense  of  the  term.  The  last  syllable  of  a  word  or 
phrase  generally  receives,  in  the  best  usage,  a  slight  stress 
of  voice.  Otherwise  eacli  syllable  is  spoken  as  nearly  as 
possible  with  the  same  force. 


OKTHOGRAPHY   AN^D   PHOKUKCIATIOJ^.  5 

7.  Accents. — There  are  tliree  diacritical  marks  called 
"accents,"  the  acute  ( '  ),  the  grave  (  ^),  and  the  circum- 
flex ( ^  ). 

Their  use  is  as  follows  : 

8.  Acute  Accent. — This  is  used  only  over  the  voavcI  e, 
and  always  gives  it  the  "close  sound/'  like  *a'  in  ^fate.' 

It  is  used  in  the  following  cases  : 

1.  At  the  end  of  a  word  it  denotes  that  e  is  not  silent. 
In  this  case  it  remains  unchanged  when  e  mute,  or  s,  or 
both  are  added  in  inflection  ;  as — 

aime,  aimee,  aimes,  aimees,  loved. 

2.  It  sometimes  serves  to  distinguish  between  two  mean- 
ings of  the  same  word,  as — 

reformer,  to  form  again  ;  reformer,  to  reform. 

3.  Sometimes  its  use  is  ai-bitrary,  as — 

reception  (from  recevoir) ;  irreligion  (from  religion). 

4.  A  few  words  may  be  written  with  either  the  acute  or 
the  grave  accent,  as — 

college  or  college  j   cortege  or  cortege. 

9.  Grave  Accent. — This  is  used  chiefly  over  e,  to  which 
it  gives  the  "open  sound,"  varying  from  'e'  in  *  there'  to 
*  e '  in  *  ebb.'     It  occurs  also  over  a  and  u.     It  is  used — 

1.  Chiefly  over  e  standing  before  a  so-called  "feminine 
syllable  "  (one  containing  e  mute,  either  final  or  followed 
by  silent  letters  only),  and  often  over  e  standing  before 
a  final  s,  as — 

pere,  tres,  premiere,  menerai,  succes. 

2.  To  distinguish  between  words  otherwise  spelled  alike, 
as— 


FREN^Cn   GRAMMAR. 


a,  has, 
la,  the, 
des,  of  the, 
ou,  or. 


a,  to. 
la,  there, 
des,  since, 
ou,  where. 


Note. — In  deja,  from  Latin  '  jam,'  it  seems  to  mark  the  falling  off 
of  the  '  m.' 

10.  Circumflex  Accent. — This  is  used  over  all  the  vowels, 
and  always  denotes  a  long  sound.     It  is  used — 

1.  To  distinguish  between  words  otherwise  spelled  alike, 
as — 

du,  of  the,  -        -        -        dii,  due,  owed, 

cru,  raw,     -        .        -        . 


mur,  wall,  -        -        - 
sur,  upon,   -         -         - 
matin,  morning, 
pecheur,  sinner, 
finit    (Pres.  Indicative), 
reput  ( 'P4-£T^  iii't£    ), 
vendit  (Preterite  Indie), 


miir,  ripe, 
sur,  sure, 
matin,  mastiff, 
pecheur,  fisherman, 
finit       (Impf.  Subjunc). 
re^ut    (     "  "        ). 

vendit  (     "  "        ). 


2.  It  generally  shows  that  contraction  has  taken  place, 
as — 


Formerly  spelled 


From  Latin 


estre,  to  be. 
isle,  island, 
paste,  paste. 
forest,  forest 
cantavimus. 
cantavistis. 
dormistis. 
anima. 


11.  The  Hyphen  is  used  as  in  English.     But  in  addition 
it  is  also  used — 

1.  In  the  interrogative  and  imperative  forms  of  the 
verb,  when  the  subject  or  object  immediately  follows,  as — 

Suis-je  ?     Am  I  ? 
Donnez-le-lui.     Give  it  him. 
Aime-je  ?    Do  I  love  ? 


SOUNDS   OF  VOWELS.  7 

2.  In  most  compound  words  and  some  phrases,  as — 

tete-a-tete  (head  to  liead),  private  interview. 

moi-m^me,  myself. 

tres-bien,  very  well  (and  the  like). 

la-haut,  up  there. 

ci-apres,  hereafter. 

3.  Between  the  parts  of  the  numerals  from  17  to  90. 
See  Sec.  99. 

12.  The  Apostrophe  is  used  to  denote  elision,  as — 

s'il  =  si  il.  jusqu'a  =  jus  que  a. 

c'est  =  ce  est.  s'entr'aider  =  se  entre  aider. 

entr'acte  =  entre  acte.         presqu'ile  =  presque  ile. 

Note. — In  grand'mere,  grand'chambre,  etc.,  the  apostrophe  is 
not  a  mark  of  elision,  but  a  remnant  of  the  Old  French  undeclined 
adjective. 

13.  The  Diseresis  is  used  as  in  English,  except  in  the 
ending  -gue,  where  it  merely  shows  that  the  u  has  its  full 
sound,  the  e  remaining  silent. 

14.  The  Cedilla  (from  the  Greek  zeta)  is  a  mark  placed 
under  c,  to  show  that  it  has  a  sharp  sound,  like  s,  as — 

gar9on,  boy  ;  regus,  received. 

15.  Other  Marks  of  punctuation  are  used  as  in  English  ; 
but  in  novels  quotation  marks  are  used  much  less  than  in 
English  ;  the  dash  is  also  used  very  often  at  the  beginning 
of  paragraphs. 


SOUNDS   OF   THE    VOWELS. 

16.  A  has  two  sounds — 

1.  Generally  like  English  'a'  in  'abbey,' Hamb,'  not 
quite  so  *'  flat  "as  *a '  in  '  hat,'  as — 

la,  glace,  ami,  patte,   mal,   arabique. 


8  FREN^CH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Often  like  English  'a '  in  *  all,'  '  father/  as- 
male,  vase,  cas,  pate,  aimames. 
Note. — A  is  silent  in  taon,  Saone,  aout,  aoiiteron,  and  aoriste. 

17.  Three  Sounds  of  E.— E  has  three  sounds,  the  "close" 
(e  ferm6),  the  "open"  (e  ouvert),  and  the  so-called  "e 
mute  "  (e  muet). 

18.  "E  fenn6." — The  close  sound  of  e  is  like  English 
'  a '  in  '  fate,'  '  name.'    It  is  heard  in  the  following  cases  : 

1.  Always  when  e  is  marked  with  the  acute  accent,  as — 

ete,  donne-je,  fee,  ne,  aimes,  the, 

2.  In  the  word  et,  and  before  final  d,  r,  or  z,  silent,  as — 

et,  assez,  pied,  tuer,  clocher,  chez. 

19.  "  E  ouvert." — Tlie  open  sound  of  e  yaries  from  the 
sound  of  English  *e'  in  'there,'  to  that  of  *e'  in  *ebb.' 
It  is  heard  in  the  following  cases  : 

1.  Full  and  long  in  e  with  the  grave  or  circumflex 
accent ;  in  the  ending  -ier  when  r  is  not  silent ;  and  before 
-rr  when  it  is  the  final  sound  of  a  word,  as — 

acces,  des,  mere,  fetre,  ev^que,  car6me,  hier,  tiers,  verre, 
terre,  serrent  (serr). 

2.  Shorter  and  less  open  in  monosyllables  ending  in 
silent  s ;»  before  a  final  consonant  sound  (except  in  the 
ending  -ier,  as  above);  and  before  any  double  consonant 
followed  by  e  mute  (excepting  -rre  final,  as  above,  but 
including  rr  when  not  a  final  sound),  as — 

mes,  tea,  dea,  ces,  les,  tu  es,  il  est,  cher,  bref,  ciel,  sers, 
perds,  belle,  quelque,  cessent  (cess),  pelleterie,  nettete,  cesserai, 
ferrer,  terrible,  derriere,  perroquet. 


SOUI^^DS   OF  VOWELS.  9 

20.  "E  muet." — E  mute,  so-called,  has  generally  an 
obscure  sound,  like  English  'e'  in  Miattev,' nearly  like 
*u'in*but.\ 

It  is  heard  in  the  following  cases  : 

1.  In  monosyllables  ending  in  e,  as — 

me,  te,  se,  le,  que  (ku),  ce,  de. 

2.  Often  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  which  is  not  final,  as — 

regret,  demain,  besoin,  brebis,  creerai,  jouerez,  nettoierai, 
prierai. 

3.  E  final,  without  any  mark  of  accent,  is  silent  (e  mute 
proper),  except  in  reading  poetry,  as — 

belle,  encore,  chasse,  envie,  statue. 

Exception. — In  reading  poetry  e  final  without  mark  has  the  sound 
of  e  mute  so-called,  when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  consonant  ; 
also  it  is  often  lightly  sounded  or  whispered  after  some  difficult 
combinations  of  consonants,  as — 

table,  sabre,  merle,  lorsque  (lorsk  u). 

4.  E  is  silent  between  g  and  a  or  o,  merely  serving  to 
show  that  g  is  soft,  as — 

mangeant  (man'  jan',  nasal  sound),  orgeat,  pigeon. 

5.  E  final  in  monosyllables  is  elided  before  a  vowel 
sound,  as — 

I'ami  (le  ami),  c'est  (ce  est),  j'aime  (je  aime). 

Note. — Zj  has  the  sound  of  short  a  in  the  words  femme,  indem- 
niser,  indemnite,  solennel,  and  always  in  the  adverbial  ending 
-cmment. 

21.  I. — The  two  sounds  of  I  differ  only  in  length. 
They  are — 

1.  Long  I  is  like  English  'i '  in  'machine,'  as — 

vie,  rire,  finir,  epitre,  ile,  si. 
1* 


10  FREKCH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Short  I  is  the  same  in  quality,  as — 

ici,  imiter,  eviter,  ii. 
Note. — I  is  silent  in  poignee,  poignet,  oignon,  and  encoignure. 

22.  0  has  three  sounds,  viz. : 

1.  Generally  like  English  '  o  '  in  '  rob/  as — 

soc,  orge,  carotte,  fol,  revolte,  poll. 

2.  Often  like  English  'o'  in  'rose/  as — 

dome,  pose,  trone,  motion,  dos,  gros. 

3.  Before  a  final  r  sound,  a  still  more  sonorous  sound, 
like  *  0  '  in  'corpse,'  as — 

or,  cor,  encore,  hors,  honorent,  dors. 

Note. — O  is  silent  in  faon,  Laon,  and  paon. 

23.  U. — The  sound  of  French  u  is  unknown  in  English. 
If  the  lips  be  placed  as  in  whistling,  and  an  attempt  then 
be  made  to  give  the  sound  of  English  '  e,'  French  u  will 
generally  be  produced.  But  this  sound  must  be  learned 
from  the  teacher.     TJ  may  be  either  long  or  short — 

1.  TJ  long  has  generally  the  circumflex  accent,  as — 

briiler,  fiimes,  grue,  figure,  vue. 

2.  XI  short  is  of  the  same  quality,  as — 

ferule,  minute,  ruse,  plume. 

Exception  1. — In  Latin  words,  before  m,  u  is  sounded  as  in 
English  in  the  same  words,  as — 

album,  forum,  triumvir,  dictum. 

Exception  2. — In  Mameluk,  and  a  few  other  foreign  words,  u  is 
like  ou  (English  *  oo '  in  *  moon  '). 

Note. — U  after  g  or  q  is  generally  silent.  After  g  it  merely 
serves  to  show  that  the  g  is  hard,  as  in  '  gun,'  as — 

que  (ku),  question,  qui  (kee),  quatre. 
guide  (gheed),  guerre  (gh^r),  fatigue. 


OF  TH»  ^ 

UNIVERSITY  J 
COMPOUKD  VOWELS   AND   D^PHTHOISaSfc  JLl 

Exception. — U  is  not  silent  after  g  in  arguer,  aiguille,  aigmser, 
and  derivatives,  and  when  followed  by  e,  as  in  aigu§,  cigue  (e 
silent).     See  Sec.  13. 

24.  Y,  when  a  vowel,  sounds  lij^e  i ;  but  between  two 
vowels  it  has  the  sound  of  two  i's  as — 

essayer  (essai-ier),  pays  (pai-i),  royal  (roi-ial). 


COMPOUND    VOWELS    AND    DIPHTHONGS. 

25.  AI  has  all  the  different  sounds  of  e,  viz.: 

1.  Like  6,  at  the  end  of  a  word,  and  often  in  other 
positions,  as — 

ai,  finirai,  aimer,  gai,  Mai,  essai,  gaite,  arraignee,  xiaitrai. 

2.  Like  6  long,  when  marked  with  the  circumflex,  for 
the  most  part,  and  before  a  "  feminine  syllable,"  as — 

aide,   chaise,   maire,  plait,   fraiche,   maigre,   aine,  haine,  plaie, 
eclairs. 

3.  Like  h  short  in  the  ending  -aison,  and  usually  in  the 
endings  -ais  and  -ait,  as — 

maison,  raison,  liaison,  mais,  avals,  etait. 

4.  Like  e  mute  in  the  parts  (not  the  terminations)  of 
the  verb  faire,  'to  do,'  and  its  derivatives,  as — 

faisons  (fuzon'),  faiseur,  infaisable. 

Note. — This  pronunciation  is  colloquial.     In  orations  and  plays  ai 
is  in  these  words  sounded  like  e. 

Remark. — Before  1  or  11,  a  and  i  do  not  coalesce  ;  a  is  short  and 
the  sound  of  i  is  obscure,  as — 

muraille,  serail,  bataille,  detail. 

26.  EI  has  generally  the  same  sound  as  6,  but  often  is 
like  h,  as — 

(e),  treizieme,  neiger,  seigneur 
(e),  reine,  teigne,  treize,  neige. 


12  FREIS'CII   GRA3IMAR. 

27.  ATI  and  EATJ,  both  alike,  liave  the  sound  of  English 
*  o  Mn  *  note/  as — 

haut  (6),  eaux  (6),  beau,  jaune. 

28.  EU  and  CETJ,  both  alike,  have  a  sound  unknown  in 
English,  but  similar  to  '  u '  in  '  fur,'  as — 

(long)   jeiine,  peur,  coeur,  fauteuil. 
(short)  jeune,  feu,  oeuf,  orgeuil,  lieu. 

Exception. — In  the  parts  of  tlie  verb  avoir,  'to  have/  and  in 
words  from  tbe  Greek,  eu  is  like  French  u,  as — 

eu,  eus,  eusse,  eut,  Eugenie,  euphonie. 

29.  TIE  and  (E  before  il  and  ille  have  the  same  sound  as 
EU  and  (EU,  as— 

CBil,  acceuil,  oeillade. 

Exception. — In  orgueilleux,  ue  is  like  e. 

30.  OU  is  like  English  'oo'  in  'moon,'  and  may  be 
either  long  or  short,  as — 

(long),    goilt,  degoiit,  voiite,  roue,  pouls. 
(short),  pou,  coup,  fenouil,  bouilli,  oui. 

31.  01  is  like  English  'wa'  in  'was'  (not  in  want), 
as — 

roi,  moi,  poire,  noir,  boire,  foi. 

32.  UA,  UE,  UI,  UO,  nearly  always  occur  (except  ni) 
after  g  or  q,  in  which  cases  the  u  is  silent,  merely  serving 
after  g  to  denote  the  hard  sound  of  g,  and  after  q  to  show 
derivation  from  the  Latin.  Thus,  in  French  words,  gua, 
gue,  gui,  qua,  que,  qui,  quo,  are  pronounced  ga,  gh6,  ghi, 
ka,  k6,  ki,  ko,  as — 

guere,  guerre,  guide,  guise,  gueule. 

qui,  quart,  quatre,  question,  queue,  quoi,  quotient,  disquisition. 

Exceptions. — In  foreign  words  and  in  Latin  words  not  well  as- 
similated to  the  French,  ua,  ue,  ui,  uo  are  pronounced  as  diphthongs; 
also  ui  in  many  truly  French  words ;  as  follows  : 


NASAL  SOUNDS.  13 

1.  TJA  like  English  *  wa'  in  'waft/  *  wax/  as — 

Alguazil,  Guatemale,  lingual,  loquacite,  quadrupede,  and  many 
beginning  with  quadra-,  quadri-,  quatri-,  quater-,  and  quinqua-. 

2.  TIE  with  the  full  sound  of  French  u  and  the  short 
sound  of  e,  combined,  as — 

questeur,  loquele,  equestre,  querimonie. 

3.  UI  with  French  n,  somewhat  shortened,  and  the  short 
sound  of  i ;  nearly  approaching  the  English  *  wee.'  This 
sound  occurs  also  in  many  words  truly  French. 

Examples. — Linguiste,  equitation,  aiguille,  aiguiser,  quiet,  cuir, 
fair,  celui,  ruine,  nuire,  fuite,  puis  que. 

4.  XJO,  like  English  *  wa '  in  '  wan/  '  watch/  as — 

aquosite. 

NASAL    SOUNDS. 

33.  M  and  N,  at  the  end  of  syllables,  lose  their  value  as 
consonants,  and  only  add  a  nasal  sound  to  the  preceding 
vowel,  which,  however,  is  greatly  modified  by  this  nasal- 
ization. All  the  nasal  sounds  may  be  reduced  to  four, 
which  are  exhibited  in  the  table  below. 

For  Exceptions  see  the  next  Sections. 

34.  Table  of  Nasal  Sounds. 

FERST  NASAL  SOUND, 
in,        as  in — pin,  crin,  vin,  vinmes,  fin,  soin, ' 

foin. 
im,       as  in — impie,  simple,  importe. 
aim,     as  in — ^faim,  daim. 
ain,      as  in — sain,  crainte,  ainsi,  Americaiu. 
eiii,      as  in — sein,  plein,  feint,  peindre. 
(i)  en,  as  in — bien,  chien,  Chretien, 
ym,     as  in — nymphe,  Olympe,  symphonie. 
yn,      as  in — lynx,  syntax. 


Sound  of  French 
short  a  nasalized. 
Similar  to  English 
*  an '  in  *  anger/ 
but  with  no  sound 
of 'g.' 


Sound  of  Englisli  'a' 
in  'watcli/  nasalized. 
Similar  to  *on'  in 
*  Concord,'  but  with 
no  sound  of  '  g." 


14  FREI^CH    GEAMMAR. 

SECOND  NASAL  BOUND, 
an,  as  in — dans,  manger,  instance,  brigand, 
am,  as  in — camp,  lampe,  amnistie,  Priam, 
em,  as  in — empire,  ensemble,  emmener. 
en,  as  in — ennui,  gens,  encre,  Orient,  client, 
audience,  science,  argent. 

THIRD  NASAL  SOUND, 
on,   as  in — ^bonbon,  long,  conte,  rencontre. )  Sound  of  English.  *  a  * 
om,  as  in— nom,  compte,  plomb,  colomb.     f  in  *  war/  nasalized. 

FODBTH   NASAL  SOUND, 
un,    as  in — ^brun,  lundi,  chacim.  \ 
um,  as  in — parfum,  humble.        v  French  en  nasalized, 
eun,  as  in — ^jeun,  Meun.  ) 

Note. — The  diphthong  oi,  when  nasalized,  is  like  English  *  wa '  in 
'  wax,'  nasalized,  as — 

loin,  moins,  foin,  soin,  poindre. 

35*  Exceptions. 

1.  M  or  n  just  before  an  m  or  n  does  not  usually  have 
the  nasal  sound,  as — 

annal,  annexe,  innomine,  tonnerre,  mammifere,  omnibus,  gemme, 
dilemme,  imminent,  innocent,  ennemi. 

Note. — Emm-  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  always  has  the  nasal 
sound,  as — 

emmener,  emm^ler,  emmaigrir,  including  remmener,  remman- 
cher,  etc. 

Also,  enn-  has  the  nasal  sound  in  ennui,  ennoblir,  and  their  de- 
rivatives. 

2.  Apparent  exceptions  arise  from  the  division  of  sylla- 
bles (see  Sec.  60),  as — 

inoui  (i-nou-i),  inhumain  (i-nu-min'). 
eminent  (e-mi-nan'),  enerver  (e-ner-ve). 
imiter  (i-mi-te),  inactif  (i-nac-tif ),  inhabile  (i-na-bil). 
Note. — In  enivrer  and  derivatives,  and  also  in  enorgueillir,  the  nasal 
sound  is  heard,  and  also  the  ordinary  sound  of  n,  enivrer  (en-ni-vre). 

3.  En,  preceded  by  i,  takes  the  first  nasal  sound  instead 
of  the  second  in  the  parts  of  the  verbs  venir  and  tenir, 


COifSONAKTS.  15 

and  their  compounds  ;  in  monosyllables  ending  in  ien  and 
their  compounds  ;  and  in  some  proper  names,  as — 
viens,  tiendrai,  parvient,  retiendrez. 
chien,  chiendent,  lien,  rien,  bien,  bientot. 
Galien,  Athenien,  Chretien,  Adrien. 
In  Enghien,  -ien  has  the  sound  of  in  (En-ghin). 
Note. — En  (not  with  i)  has  the  first  nasal  sound  in  some  foreign 
words  and  names,  as — 

Benjamin,  Mentor,  Marengo,  appendice,  agenda,  sempiternel. 

4.  M  and  n  do  not  give  the  nasal  sound  in  unassimilated 
foreign  words,  as — 

hymen,  specimen,  abdomen,  amen. 

item,  Sem,  Jerusalem,  omnibus. 
In  somnambule,  am  is  nasal,  om  not. 

Note. — The  nasal  sound  is  heard,  however,  in  Adam,  dam,  qui- 
dam  (ki-dan'). 

5.  Ent  final,  in  the  third  person  plural  of  verbs,  is  not 
nasal,  but  entirely  silent,  as — 

content  (con't),  one  syllable. 

CONSONANTS. 

36.  General  Rule. — Consonants  not  final  are  pronounced, 
in  general,  as  in  English,  but  are  all  sounded,  none  being 
silent,  except  at  the  end  of  a  word.  (See  next  Sec.)  Ex- 
amples : 

psaume,  flegme,  calme,  (p,  g,  1,  not  silent). 

37.  Final  Consonants  are  generally  silent,  except  c,  f,  1, 
and  r,  as — 

etait  (ete),  faits  (fe),  dards  (dar). 

38.  General  Exceptions. —In  many  foreign  words  and 
names,  final  consonants  are  not  silent ;  also  in  some  tech- 
nical terms.     Examples  : 

B, — rumb  (rom'b),  radoub,  Job. 
D, — David,  Alfred,  ephod. 
G,— joug,  zigzag,  whig,  bourg  (bourk). 

S, — Atlas,  Adonis,  forceps,  biceps,  blocus,  atlas,  omnibus,  gratis. 
T, — Albret,  Lot,   Huet,  deficit,  vivat,  exeat,    deficit,  Christ, 
Brest,  Soult. 
X, — Ajax,  Aix. 


16  FREKCn   GKAMMAR. 

Special  rules  and  exceptions  will  be  found  below,  under  each  let- 
ter wliicli  requires  particular  notice. 

39.  Two  sounds  of  C. — C  has  two  sounds,  as  in  English, 
viz  : 

1.  C  is  soft,  like  s,  before  e,  i,  and  y,  and  also  when  writ- 
ten with  the  cedilla,  as- — 

douce,  gar9on,  ceci,  Nancy,  cite. 

2.  C  is  hard,  like  k,  in  all  other  cases,  as — 

clerc,  coco,  cuir,  cri,  lac,  succes. 
Note. — C  has  the  sound  of  g  hard  in  second  (segon')  and  fecond, 
and  their  derivatives,  and  in  czar  (gsar). 

3.  C  final,  generally  sounded  (Sec.  37),  is  silent  in  words 
ending  in -anc : — 

banc,  blanc,  flanc,  franc ; — also  in  verbal  endings  ; — vainc,  con- 
vainc,  etc.,  including  vaincs,  convaincs,  etc.  ;  also  in  broc,  clerc, 
croc,  accroc,  raccroc,  escroc,  estomac,  marc,  jonc,  ajonc,  tronc, 
pore,  caoutchouc,  tabac. 

Note. — C  is  also  silent  in  echecs  (not  in  echec),  amict,  instinct 
(in-sUn'). 

40.  CH  has  the  sound  of  English  'sh  '  in  'shall,'  as — 

chercher,  chaise,  Achille,  archev^que. 
Note. — In  some  Greek  words  and  some  proper  nouns  it  is  hard, 
like  k,  as — 

chaos,  choeur,  Chretien,  Michel- Ange. 

41.  D  Final. — D  is  silent  before  final  s,  as — 

fonds  (fon'),  remords  (remor),  vends  (ven'). 
Note. — D  is  not  silent  in  sud  and  its  compounds.    See  also  Sec.  38. 

42.  F  Final,  pronounced  by  tlie  general  rule,  is  silent  in 
clef,  chef-d'oeuvre,  bceufs,  oeufs,  cerfs,  and  nerf, — but  is  not 
silent  in  chef,  not  compounded,  nor  in  boeuf,  cerf,  ceuf,  in 
the  singular,  nor  in  ner^  before  a  vowel  sound. 

Note. — In  neuf,  f  takes  the  sound  of  v  before  a  vowel  sound,  as — 
neuf  ans  (neu-van'),  neuf  hommes  (neu-vom). 

43.  Two  Sounds  of  G. — G  has  two  sounds,  as  in  English  : 
1.  G  is  soft,  like  *g'  in  *  gibbet,'  before  e,  i,  and  y,  as — 

genre,  gibet,  general,  gymnastique. 


COKSOiq'ANTS. 


17 


2.  G  is  hard,  like  'g'  in  'game,'  in  all  other  cases  (ex- 
cept before  n,  see  below),  as — 

gar9on,  gomme,  guide,  gloire,  gramme. 

3.  G  is  silent,  generally  at  the  end  of  a  word  (see  Sec. 
38),  and  also  in  doigt  (dot),  vignt  (vin'),  and  its  deriva- 
tives, in  the  compounds  of  sang,  MHI§lilii^3Ssaif^Bi|lBfc  ^^^ 
legs,  (U),  and  its  compounds,  in  s^net  (si-n6),  Regnard 
(R6-nar),  Clugny,  Compi^gne. 

44.  Gn  has  a  "liquid  sound,"  like  English  'ni'  in 
'union,'  the  proper  sound  of  g  being  entirely  lost,  as — 

magnifique,  signer  (si-nye),  agneau. 

Note. — In  some  unassimilated  words  from  the  Latin  and  Greek 
g  and  n  are  heard  separately,  as — 

gnome,  gnostique,  agnat,  diagnostique,  geognosie,  ignition,  inex- 
pugnable, magnificat,  physiognomie,  recognitif,  stagnant,  stagna- 
tion. 

45.  H  is  silent  in  French,  except  in  some  proper  names. 
H  Aspirate,  so-called. — About  300  words,  beginning  with 

h,  do  not  allow  the  elision  of  a  preceding  vowel,  or  the 
linking  of  a  preceding  consonant.  This  is  called  '*  as- 
pirate h." 

The  following  list  contains  all  those  in  common  use. 
Those  not  given  are  nautical  and  technical  terms. 


List  of  "Aspirated"  Words. 

habler. 

halo. 

hareng, 

hache, 

halte. 

hargneux. 

hagard, 

hampe. 

haricot. 

haie. 

hanche. 

harnacher, 

haUlon, 

hanneton, 

harnais. 

haine. 

hanter, 

harnois. 

hair,  Ac, 

happer. 

harpie, 

hile. 

harangue, 

hasard,  Ac, 

halener, 

harasser, 

hate,  Ac, 

h^er, 

harceler, 

hausser. 

haleter, 

hardes, 

haut,  Ac, 

halle 

hardi,  Ac, 

have, 

hallucination, 

harem, 

Havre, 

18 


FREITCH   GEAMMAK. 


havre,  hoche,  &c.,  houille,  &c., 

havre-sac,  hogner,  houppe,  &c., 

hennir,  &c.,  HoUande,  houri, 

Henri,  Hongrie,  housser,  &c., 

heraut,  honnir,  houx, 

herisser,  honte,  huaille, 

hernie,  hoquet,  huit,  «&c., 

heron,  horde,  Huguenot, 

heros,  hors,  huppe,  Ac, 

(not  derivatives),         hotte,  hurler,  &c. 

heurter,  &c.,  houbloa,  hussard, 

hideux,  houe,  &c.,  hutte. 

In  the  above  list, '  &c.'  means, '  and  its  derivatives  or  compounds.' 

46.  J  has  always  tlie  sound  of  '  s  '  in  '  pleasure,'  as — 

jambe,  joujou,  deja,  rejeter. 

47.  L  (except  "liquid  1 ")  has  the  same  sound  as  in  Eng- 
lish, as — 

il,  illustre,  lettre,  calcul,  intelligent- 
Liquid  L,  so-called. — L  and  11,  preceded  by  i,  not  at  the 
beginning  of  a  word,  have  usually  a  *'  liquid  sound,"  like 
English  Mli'  in  *  brilliant,'  or  even  with  no  sound  of  1 
whatever. 

1.  n  liquid  hardly  differs  from  English  *  y '  consonant. 


travail,  ceil,  deuil,  avril,  fenil,  mil  (=  millet),  peril,  tril,  gresil. 

2.  HI  liquid  is  sounded  more  strongly  than  il.  It  oc- 
curs for  the  most  part,  followed  by  e  mute,  at  the  end  of 
words,  in  which  case  a  slight  sound  of  the  e  mute  is  given, 
as — 

fille  (almost  like  '  feeyu '),  chenille,  volaille  (see  Sec.  25,  Rem.), 
muraille. 

3.  n  final  is  not  liquid  in  the  following  words,  mostly 
Latin  : 

List  of  Words  with  '  il '  not  Liquid. 


beril, 

civil, 

il, 

bissextil. 

exil, 

mil  (-1000), 

Bresil, 

fil, 

morfil, 

COKSOXAKTS. 

Nil, 

poil, 

sextil, 

octU, 

profil, 

subtil, 

penU, 

pueril, 

viril, 

pistil, 

quintil  (Sec.  32), 

volatil 

19 


4.  m  is  not  liquid  in  the  following  words,  mostly  di- 
rectly from  the  Latin  : 

List  of  Words  with  *  ill '  not  Liquid, 


Achille, 

idyUe, 

scintiller, 

axilliare, 

imbecUlite 

siUe, 

d  all  adjectives  in 

instiller, 

sybille. 

-Ulaire, 

Lille, 

tittiller. 

calviUe, 

mille. 

tranquille. 

cavillation, 

osciller, 

(and  derivatives). 

codicille, 

papiUe, 

vaciller. 

distiller, 

pupille, 

vaudeville, 

fibriUe, 

pusillanime, 

village. 

Gille, 

scille. 

ville. 

5.  L  final  is  silen 

t  in  the  following  : 

baril. 

fournil, 

nombril, 

chartil, 

fraisil, 

outil, 

chenil, 

fusil, 

penil. 

courtil, 
coutil, 

menil. 

sourcil. 

Also  in  cul-de-sac,  cul-de-jatte,  though  not  in  cul ;  and  in  a  few 
proper  names. 

Note. — L  is  often  silent  before  other  final  consonants,  as — 
fils,  pouls,  aulx,  Arnauld. 

48.  M  is  silent  in  darnner,  and  its  derivatives,  damn6, 
condamner,  &c. 

For  m  nasal,  see  Sec.  34. 

Otherwise  m  is  sounded  as  in  English. 

49.  N  is  silent  in  monsieur.  Otherwise  n  and  nn  are  as 
in  English. 

For  n  nasal,  see  Sec.  34. 

50.  P  is  silent  in  sept,  septi^me  (not  in  other  derivatives 
of  sept,  as  septembre,  septennal),  exempt  (but  not  in  ex- 
emption), prompt  (but  not  impromptu) ;  bapteme,  compte. 


20  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

dompter,  and  their  derivatives  ;  romps,  rompt,  temps,  and 
corps. 

Also  final  p  is  silent  in  drap,  galop,  trop,  strop,  coup, 
beaucoup,  cantaloup,  camp,  champ,  clamp. 

Otherwise  p  sounds  as  in  English. 

Note. — Ph  is  always  like  f. 

51t  Q,  has  the  sound  of  k.     Q  final,  silent  by  the  general 
rule,  is  heard  in  coq,  but  not  in  coqs  nor  in  coq-d'Inde. 
In  cinq  it  is  heard  only  before  a  vowel  sound,  as — 
cinq  hommes  (sin'  kom). 

52.  R  is  generally  pronounced,  in  French,  as  a  dental 
consonant.  The  so-called  grass6yement  is  a  sound  of  r 
produced  with  the  base  of  the  tongue,  and  is  heard  chiefly 
in  Paris. 

E  final  is  silent  in  the  ending  er,  and  in  monsieur,  mes- 
sieurs, as — 

parler,  panier,  narrer,  Royer. 
Exceptions. — R  final  is  not  silent  in  monosyllables  (as  fer,  cher, 
mer),  nor  in  amer,  enfer,  hiver,  nor  in  hier  when  standing  alone. 
In  avant  hier  r  is  silent  (avan'-tie). 

53.  Two  sounds  of  S. — S  has  two  sounds,  as  in  English, 
viz.: 

1.  S  has  a  soft  sound,  like  z,  when  it  stands  between 
two  vowels,  as — 

rose,  vase,  saisie,  presomption,  oiseau. 
Exception. — In  compound  words  s  retains  the    same 
sound  as  in  the  component  parts,  even  though  brought  be- 
tween two  vowels,  as — 

havresac  (sac,  not  zac),  vraisemblable,  antisocial,  desuetude,  pre- 
supposer,  monosyllable,  entresol,  asymetrie. 

2.  S  has  a  sharp  sound,  like  *  s  *  in  *  sun,'  in  all  other 
cases,  as — 

sceur,  sept,  fils,  substance,  transir,  isthme,  asthme,  scribe,  sque- 
lette,  siecle,  mais,  issue,  science,  scene,  heroisme,  prisme. 

Note. — Sch  is  like  sh  in  schisme,  schiste,  and  their  derivatives, 
and  like  sk  in  schene. 


CONSOKAKTS.  21 

3.  S  final,  silent  by  the  general  rule,  is  heard  in  Greek 
and  Latin  words  (see  Sec.  38),  and  m  fils  (at  the  end  of 
a  sentence  or  before  a  vowel  sound),  jadis,  lis  (but  not  in 
flceur-de-lis),  mceurs,  ours,  relaps,  and  in  tous  when  used 
absolutely. 

4.  S  is  silent,  when  not  final,  in  some  names  and  words, 
chiefly  compounds  : — Descartes,  lesquels,  mesdames,  regis- 
tre,  jurisdiction,  etc. 

54.  T  has  generally  the  same  sound  as  in  English,  but — 

1.  T  has  the  sharp  sound  of  s  in  the  endings  -tial,  -tiel, 
-tien,  -tier,  -tiare,  -tion,  -tius,  -tium,  -atie,  -6tie,  -itie,  -otie, 
-utie,  -eptie,  and  -ertie, — and  also  in  the  combinations  -tia-, 
-ti6-,  -tic-  when  not  final,  as — 

nation,  partial,  essentiel,  initier,  Titien,  ambitieux,  Actium,  Aetius, 
penitentiare,  aristocratie,  minutie,  ineptie,  inertie,  satiete,  Spar- 
tiate,  nicotiane,  gentiane,  Miltiade,  petiole,  ratiociner. 

Exceptions. — T  retains  its  own  sound  in  the  following,  mostly 
nnassimilated  Latin  words  : 

bastion,  bestial,  mixtion,  Critias,  centiare,  moitie,  metier. 

2.  T  final,  silent  by  the  general  rule,  is  heard  in  many 
proper  names  and  Latin  words  (see  Sec.  38),  and  in  the 
following  : 

brut,  chut,  dot,  huit  (before  a  vowel  sound),  lut,  net,  rit,  rut,  pre- 
terit. 

3.  When  t  final  is  preceded  by  another  consonant,  both 
are  usually  silent,  as —  / 

instinct,  est  (=is). 

Exception. — Both  are  sounded  in  the  following,  mostly  foreign  . 


abject. 

inexact. 

strict, 

compact. 

incorrect, 

tact. 

contact. 

intact. 

test, 

est  (=East), 

lest,      . 

zist. 

exact, 

Quest, 

zest. 

hast, 

rapt, 

22  FEEI?^CH   GRAMMAR. 

Note. — In  Christ  both  s  and  t  are  heard  ;  in  Jesus  Christ,  neither 
(Jezu-Cri)  ;  so  also  Antichrist  (Antecri). 

Sept  (sett),  is  pronounced  se  before  a  consonant  sound,  if  closely 
joined  to  the  following  word. 

4.  Th.  has  always  the  simple  sound  of  t. 

55,  X. — The  double  consonant  x  has  in  general  the  same 
sound  as  in  English,  following  the  same  rules. 

1.  X  is  like  ks  before  another  consonant ;  at  the  begin- 
ning of  words  (except  proper  names) ;  wlien  not  silent  at 
the  end  of  a  word  ;  and  usually  between  two  vowels,  as — 

exclamation,  sextuple,  xiste,  luxe,  Ajax,  prefix,  sphinx. 
Exceptions. — X    final,  usually  silent,  is  sometimes  like  s  and 
sometimes  like  z.     See  5,  below. 

2.  X  is  like  gs  at  the  beginning  of  Greek  names  ;  and  in 
the  prefixes  ex  and  hex  before  a  vowel  sound,  as — 

Xenophon,  Xerces,  exact,  hexametre,  exhorter. 
Exception, — X  is  like  ks  in  execrer  (as  being  derived  from  the 
Latin  '  ex-secrari  *). 

3.  X  is  like  sliarp  s  in  soixante  and  its  compounds,  and 
in  Auxerre,  Auxonne,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Bmxelles,  coccyx, 
and  in  dix  and  six  at  the  end  of  a  sentence. 

4.  X  is  like  z  in  the  derivatives  of  deux,  six,  and  dix,  and 
when  final  x  is  carried  (see  5),  as — 

deuxieme,  sixieme,  dixaine,  dixeau. 

5.  X  final  is  usually  silent,  as — 

six,  dix,  paix,  chaux,  vieux,  voix,  epoux,  Bayeux. 
Note. — X  final  is  like  s  in  dix  and  six,  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  ; 
and  like  z  when  carried  to  the  next  word,  before  a  vowel  sound 
(see  Sec.  58),  as — 
Beatrix  est  (Beatri-ze),  dix-huit  (di-zui),  deux  hommes,  (deu-zom). 

56.  Y  is  usually  a  vowel,  equal  to  i  or  ii,  and  by  some 
is  always  so  explained.  If  considered  as  a  consonant,  it 
has  the  same  sound  as  Englisli  y,  as — 

bruyere,  Lafayette,  Bayard,  Mayence. 


LINKING   OF   WORDS.  23 

57.  Z  final,  silent  by  the  general  rule,  is  pronounced 
like  English  z  in  gaz ;  and  like  s  in  quartz,  Metz,  Luz,  Al- 
varez, Cortez,  and  other  foreign  proper  names. 

LINKING    OF    WORDS. 

58.  Frequently,  when  a  word  ends  in  a  consonant,  and 
the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel  sound,  the  consonant 
is  carried  over  to  the  second  word,  and  the  two  are  spoken 
as  one.  This  linking  does  not  take  place  if  the  words  are 
separated  by  a  mark  of  punctuation  or  a  rhetorical  pause. 
It  is  most  frequent  with  s,  x,  and  t,  and  generally  modifies 
the  sound  of  the  consonant. 

Examples. — Vous  avez  (vou-zave),  ils  ont  (il-zon'),  aux  armes 
(o-zarm). 

1.  In  such  cases  s  and  x  take  the  sound  of  z,  g  that  of 
k,  and  d  that  of  t,  even  though  silent  by  other  rules. 

Examples. — Beatrix  est  (Beatri-ze),  profond  abime  (profon' 
tabim),  grand  homme  (gran'-tom),  neuf  enfanta  (neu  ven'fan'),  sang 
humain  (san'-kumain'),  depuls  un  (depui-zun'). 

2.  When  the  consonant  to  be  linked  is  n  nasal,  it  gen- 
erally has  a  double  sound,  the  first  nasal,  the  second  not 
so,  as — 

bon  epoux  (bon'-nepou),  bien  heureux  (bien'-neureu),  plein  air 
(plen'-ner),  un  enfant  bien  eleve  (un'-nen'fan'  bien'-neleve). 

3.  E  mute  final  is  often  disregarded,  and  the  words 
linked  as  above,  as — 

^tre  attentif  (^-tratten'tif),  genre  humain  (gen'-rumin'). 

4.  A  few  words  are  never  linked — 

et,  clef,  loup,  plomb,  riz. 

59.  Elision  of  e  mute  final  is  practised  very  commonly, 
for  brevity  and  euphony. 

Examples. — Voila  le  chemin  de  fer,  see  the  railroad  (pronounced 
Voilal  chmin'd  fer). 

Je  le  sais,  I  know  it  (Jul  se). 

Je  ne  te  le  donne  pas,  I  do  not  give  it  to  you  (pronounced  Jun  tul 

don  pa). 


24  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

O'est  le  chemin  de  fer  de  la  ville,  it  is  the  railroad  from  the  cily 
(pronounced  eel  chmin'd  fer  dlavil). 

Note. — For  the  elision  of  e  mute  before  est,  a,  enx,  &c.,  see  Sec. 
12,  on  the  use  of  the  apostrophe. 

60.  Syllables. — In  dividing  words  into  syllables,  each 
syllable,  so  far  as  possible,  is  made  to  end  with  a  vowel. 

Examples. — Patrimoine,  pa-tri-moi-ne,  divided  into  five  sylla- 
bles, pronounced  as  four. 


me-tho-de. 

i-gno-rant. 

in-co-gni-to. 

ca-rac-te-ris-ti-que. 

bie-nheu-reux. 


ma-gni-fi-que. 

as-si-gna-tion. 

e-ty-mo-lo-gie. 

ma-lheur. 

a-veu-gle. 


CHAPTEE  II.— THE  ARTICLE. 

DEFINITE    ARTICLE. 

61.  The  Definite  Article,  in  reality  a  weakened  demon- 
strative pronoun,  from  the  Latin  Mile,'  has  two  genders, 
masculine  and  feminine,  and  two  numbers,  singular  and 
plural.  It  agrees  in  gender  and  number  with  the  noun 
to  which  it  belongs.  Its  form  is,  in  the  singular,  mascu- 
line le,  feminine  la ;  in  the  plural  les  for  both  genders. 
Examples  : 


Les  livres,  the  books. 
La  mort,  death. 


Le  pere,  the  father. 
La  mere,  the  mother. 
Les  enfants,  the  children. 

Note. — Before  a  vowel  soun.d  both  le  and  la  suffer  elision, 
taking  the  form  1',  as — 

L'homme,  the  man.  I         L'histoire,  the  history. 

L'arbre,  the  tree.  |  L'annee,  the  year. 

Exception. — Le  and  la  never  lose  their  vowel  before  onze,  eleven, 
and  onzieme,  eleventh. 

62.  Du  and  an. — The  definite  article  joins  with  the  pre- 
positions de  or  a,  forming  one  word  ;  but  la  and  V  never 
thus  unite.     The  following  table  shows  all  the  forms  : 


DEFINITE  ARTICLE. 
DEFINITE  ARTICLE. 


25 


Alone. 

Before  a  vowel 
sound. 

With  de. 

With  i. 

«. (Mas.... 

^"^S-     JFem... 

le 

1» 

du 

au 

la 

1' 

dela 

£ila 

Plural 

les 

les 

des 

aux 

EXAMPLES. 

Du  roi,  of  tlie  king. 

Des  freres,  of  the  brothers. 

Au  voisin,  to  tlie  neighbor. 

Des  feuilles,  of  the  leaves. 

Au  gar90n,  to  the  boy. 

Au  vin,  to  the  wine. 

Aux  loups,  to  the  wolves 

De  I'ennemi,  of  the  enemy. 

Aux  fen^tres,  to  the  windows. 

De  I'oiseau,  the  bird's. 

De  la  vie,  of  the  Ufe. 

A  I'argent,  to  the  money. 

A  I'oncle,  to  t 

tie  uncle. 

A  la  tante,  to  the  aunt. 

63.  Use  of  the  Definite  Article. — The  definite  article  has 
in  general  a  slightly  demonstrative  force,  as  in  English. 
But  its  use  is  far  more  extensive  than  in  English,  as  follows  : 

1.  The  definite  article  is  used  with  common  nouns  used 
in  the  full  extent  of  their  meaning  : 


La  nature,  nature. 
Ij'amour,  love. 
lie  vice,  vice. 
L'hiver,  Winter. 
L'or,  gold. 


La  fortune,  fortune. 
L'amitie,  friendship. 
La  jeiinesse,  youth. 
Le  fer,  iron. 
Les  hommes,  men. 


2.  The  definite  article  is  used  to  denote  the  parts  of  the 
body,  where  the  possessive  pronoun  is  used  in  English  : 

Mai  a  la  t^te,  pain  in  one's  head,  headache. 
L'epee  a  la  main,  his  sword  in  his  hand. 
Mai  aux  dents,  toothache. 

3.  The  definite  article  is  used  with  other  parts  of  speech, 
when  used  as  nouns  : 

Le  vert,  green  (a  color).     Le  pourquoi,  the  why. 
Le  boire  et  le  manger,  drinking  and  eating. 

4.  The  definite  article  is  used  with  the  names  of  coun- 
tries, provinces,  mountains,  rivers,  winds,  and  titles  of 
persons : 

2 


26  FEEI^CH   GRAMMAR. 


L'Europe,  Europe. 
Les  Alpes,  tlie  Alps. 
Iia  Seine,  the  Seine. 


De  I'Amerique,  of  America, 
Le  Vesuve,  Vesuvius. 
La  Lorraine,  Lorraine. 


Le  general  Knox,  General  Knox. 

5.  The  definite  article  is  used  in  distributive  expressions, 
where  the  indefinite  article  is  used  in  English  : 

Une  fois  I'an,  once  a  year. 

Deux  fois  la  semaine,  twice  a  week. 

Trois  milles  a  I'heure,  three  miles  an  hour. 

6.  The  definite  article  is  repeated  with  each  noun  to 
which  it  belongs : 

L'esprit,  le  coeur  et  les  moeurs,  mind,  heart,  and  manners. 

7.  The  definite  article  is  inseparable  from  some  names 
of  places  and  authors  : 


La  Havane,  Havana. 
Le  Dante,  Dante. 


La  Hague,  the  Hague. 
La  Mexique,  Mexico. 
Le  Poussin,  Poussin. 

64.  Exceptions  to  the  above. — The  definite  article  is 
sometimes  omitted,  though  required  by  the  general  rules  : 

1.  The  definite  article  is  not  used  with  a  noun  which 
limits  another  noun,  though  used  in  its  full  extent  : — 

Le  roi  de  France  (not  de  la  France),  the  king  of  France. 
Un  homme  de  courage,  a  man  of  courage. 
L'armee  de  France,  the  French  army. 

2.  The  definite  article  is  not  used  with  the  numerals 
employed  in  names  of  sovereigns  and  in  citations  from 
books  : 

Henri  quatre,  Henry  (four)  the  Fourth. 
George  trois,  George  (three)  the  Third. 
Livre  premier,  chapitre  cinq,  book  I,  chap.  5. 

3.  The  definite  article  is  not  used  with  the  names  of 
countries,  when  governed  by  the  prepositions  en  or  de  : 

Les  oiseaux  d'Afrique,  the  birds  of  Africa. 

n  est  en  Ecosse,  He  is  in  Scotland. 

Je  viens  d'lorlande,  I  have  come  from  Ireland. 


IJS'DEFIKITE   ARTICLE.  27 

Note. — Tlie  article  is  arbitrarily  retained  with,  some  names  of 
places ;  see  Sec.  63,  7. 

INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

65.  The  Indefinite  Article,  in  reality  a  weakened  de- 
monstrative, from  the  Latin  *unus/  lias  two  genders, 
masculine  and  feminine,  and  agrees  in  gender  with  the 
noun  to  which  it  belongs.  Its  form  is,  masculine  un, 
feminine  une.     Examples  : 

Un  canif,  a  penknife,  I  Une  reine,  a  queen, 

Un  ami,  a  friend.  |  Une  pomme,  an  apple. 

66.  Use  of  the  Indefinite  Article. — Its  use  is  less  exten- 
sive than  in  English,  but,  in  general,  follows  the  same 
usage.  It  is  not  used,  where  it  might  be  expected,  in  the 
following  cases : 

1.  The  indefinite  article  is  not  used  with  nouns  in  ap- 
position : 

L'avare,  come  die  par  Moliere,  "  The  Miser,"  a  comedy  by  Mo- 
liere. 

Vienne,  villa  d'Autriche,  Vienna,  a  city  of  Austria. 

2.  The  indefinite  article  is  not  used  in  phrases  where 
the  verb  and  its  object  are  so  closely  joined  as  to  be  con- 
sidered as  one  word  or  *' phrase  "  : 

Faire  fortune,  to  make  a  fori;une. 
Rendre  visite,  to  pay  a  visit. 
Ne  dire  mot,  not  to  say  a  word. 

3.  The  indefinite  article  is  not  used  in  distributive  ex- 
pressions ;  the  definite  article  or  the  preposition  par  being 
used  in  such  cases  : 

Six  francs  par  jour,  6  francs  a  day. 
Une  fois  la  semaine,  once  a  week.    » 

4.  The  indefinite  article  is  not  used  in  the  titles  of  books: 

Grammaire  frangaise,  a  French  grammar. 

5.  The  indefinite  article  is  not  used  after  quel,  *  how,' 
used  as  an  exclamation,  nor  usually  after  jamais,  *  never  ;' 


28  FREI^CH    GRAMMAR. 

Quel  bruit  vouz  faites,  what  a  noise  you  make  ! 

Jamais  general  plus  distingue,  never  a  general  was  more  distin- 
guished. 

6.  The  indefinite  article  is  not  used  with  a  predicate 
noun  or  adjective  : 

Je  suis  franQais,  I  am  a  Frenchman. 
II  est  medecin,  he  is  a  physician. 

Note. — The  indefinite  article  is  used  after  c'est, '  he  is,'  •  it  is,'  voila, 
'  there  is,'  voici,  '  here  is  ; '  or  when  it  belongs  to  a  predicate  noun 
which  is  limited  by  an  adjective,  as — 

C'est  un  Anglais,  he  is  an  Englishman. 

Voici  un  officier,  here  is  an  officer. 

II  etait  im  medecin  distingue,  he  was  a  distinguished  physician. 

DEFINITE  ARTICLE  USED  PARTITIVELY. 

67.  So-called  ^'Partitive  Article." — The  definite  article, 
combined  with  the  preposition  de  (du,  de  la,  des),  is  used 
with  a  partitive  meaning,  before  a  common  noun  not  used 
in  its  widest  sense,  and  denotes  an  indefinite  limitation  of 
its  meaning,  like  the  English  *  some '  or  '  any '  : 

J'ai  du  pain,  I  have  some  bread. 

Du  vin  et  de  I'argent,  wine  and  money. 

Mon  pere  a  du  bon  et  du  mauvais,  my  father  has  some  good  and 
some  bad  (qualities). 

Note. — The  article  thus  used  is  called  by  most  French  gramma- 
rians the  "  Partitive  Article." 

68.  Exceptions. — The  article  is  omitted  in  partitive  ex- 
pressions, and  de  alone  is  used  in  the  following  cases  : 

1.  The  article  is  not  used  after  a  negative  or  partitive 
adverb,  or  any  word  having  a  partitive  or  quantitative 
force  : 

Je  n'ai  pas  de  cafe,  I  have  no  coffee. 

Beaucoup  de  I'argent,  much  money. 

Une  foule  de  peuple,  a  crowd  of  people. 

Moins  de  fer,  point  d'or,  less  iron,  no  gold. 

Un  panier  d'oranges,  a  basket  of  oranges. 

Une  troupe  d'enfans  (see  Sec.  76,  N.),  a  troop  of  children. 


DEFINITE   ARTICLE   USED   PARTITIVELT.  29 

Note. — Bien,  tliough  really  a  quantitative  adverb  in  such  expres- 
sions, takes  the  article  : 

Bien  des  ennemis,  plenty  of  enemies. 
Bien  de  I'argent,  a  good  deal  of  money. 
But  the  expression,  bien  d'autres,  *  many  others,'  is  sometimes 
met  with. 

2.  The  article  is  not  used  in  partitive  expressions  with 
a  noun  limited  by  an  adjectiye  : 

Nous  avons  de  bons  livres,  We  have  good  books. 

De  mauvais  cafe,  bad  coffee. 

Void  de  bon  pain,  Here  is  some  good  bread. 

Exception. — The  article  is  retained  when  the  noun  and 
adjective  are  closely  connected  in  a  phrase  or  compound 
word : 

Des  blancs-becs  (white-beaks),  green-homs. 

U  a  du  bon  sens,  he  has  good  sense. 

De  la  belle  musique,  some  good  music. 

Des  jeunes  gens,  some  young  folks. 

OENEBAL  EXAMPLES. 

Sans  argent,  without  any  money. 

Sans  fa9on,  without  ceremony.  (Here  there  is  no  partitive  idea. 
All  is  excluded.) 

Avec  de  I'argent,  with  some  money.  (Not  all  money,  but  an  in- 
definite limited  amount.) 

Un  grand  nombre  des  personnes  que  j'ai  vue,  a  large  number  of 
the  people  whom  I  have  seen.  (Here  there  is  no  partitive  idea,  but 
the  article  limits  *  persons.'     '*  Those  people  whom,"  &c.) 

II  n'y  a  d'utile  que  ce  qui  est  juste  (Mirabeau).  There  is  nothing 
expedient  but  that  which  is  just. 

Vous  ferez  du  bien  a  vous  mSme  (Fenelon),  You  will  do  (some) 
good  to  yourself. 


30  FKENCH   GRAMMAK. 


CHAPTER  III.— THE  JS^OUJST. 

GENDER    OF    NOUNS. 

69.  Two  Genders. — All  nouns  are  either  masculine  or 
feminine.  There  is  no  neuter  gender  of  nouns.  Gender, 
in  French  grammar,  is  an  attribute  of  the  word,  not  of 
the  thing  which  the  word  stands  for.  It  is  to  a  large  ex- 
tent grammatical,  not  logical  or  real. 

70.  Masculine  Nouns. — The  following  classes  of  nouns 
are  masculine  : 


1.   Names  of  male  beings  and  offices 


Le  maitre,  the  master. 
Le  cheval,  tlie  horse. 


CJn  chien,  a  dog. 

Le  Fran9ais,  the  Frenchman. 


2.  Names  of  the  seasons,  months,  days,  points  of  the 
compass,  trees,  classes  of  animals,  metals,  and  chemical 
elements,  are  masculine  : 


Le  printemps,  Spring. 
Le  ch^ne,  the  oak. 
Le  cuivre,  copper. 


Le  lundi,  Monday. 
L'hydrogene,  hydrogen. 
Un  mammifere,  a  mammal. 


Le  nord,  le  sud,  I'est,  I'ouest,  the  North,  the  South,  the  East,  the 
West  (see  Sec.  54,  3,  Ex.). 

Exceptions. — The  names  of  some  trees  are  feminine  by  termina- 
tion (see  next  Sec.) : 

L'yeuse,  the  yew.  I  L'ebene,  the  ebony. 

La  vigne,  the  vine.  |  L'aubepine,  the  hawthorn. 

3.  Adjectives,  verbs,  &c.,  used  as  nouns,  are  masculine  : 

Le  rouge,  le  noir  et  le  blanc. 

the  red,      black,        and  white. 

Le  boire  et  le  manger,  eating  and  drinking. 

Le  romantique  et  le  classique,  the  romantic  and  classical. 

4.  Most  nouns  derived  from  masculine  or  neuter  Latin 
nouns  are  masculine  : 

Ecuyer,  squire  (scutarius). 
Ev^que,  bishop  (episcopus). 
Pecheur,  sinner  (peccator). 


GENDER  OF  KOUNS.  31 

PScheur,  fisherman  (piscator). 
Ami,  friend  (amicus). 
Ciel,  sky  (ccelum). 
Plomb,  lead  (plumbum). 
Jour,  day  (diurnus). 
Fenouil,  fennel  (foeniculum). 
Peril,  danger  (periculum). 
Venin,  poison  (venenum). 
Note. — This,  of  course,  includes  many  nouns  which  also  come 
under  other  rules,  but  is  perhaps  the  most  practically  useful  rule  of 
all. 

Remeirks. — Most  nouns  not  feminine  by  termination  (see  next 
Sec.)  are  usually  said  to  be  masculine  by  termination.     Such  a  rule 
would  cover  the  same  ground  as  those  given,  and  be  subject  to  many 
exceptions. 
For  compound  nouns  see  Sec.  75. 
The  gender  of  many  nouns  is  best  learned  by  rote. 

71.  Feminine  Nouns. — The  following  classes  of  nouns  are 
feminine  : 

1.  Names  of  female  beings  and  offices  are  feminine  : 

La  reine,  the  queen.  I  La  vache,  the  cow. 

La  jument,  the  mare.  |         La  colombe,  the  dove. 

2.  Most  names  of  fruits,  flowers,  and  herbs  are  femi- 
nine : 

La  pomme,  the  apple.  I         La  rose,  the  rose. 

La  cerise,  the  cherry.  La  poire,  the  pear. 

La  sauge,  sage.  |  L'asperge,  asparagus. 

3.  Most  nouns  derived  from  Latin  feminine  nouns  are 

feminine  : 

L'enfance,  infancy  (infantia). 

La  raison,  reason  (rationem). 

La  chandelle,  the  candle  (candela). 

La  liaison,  the  connection  (ligationem). 

La  taverne,  the  tavern  (taberna). 

La  peinture,  the  painting  (pictura). 

La  qu^te  (see  Sec.  32),  the  search  (quaesita). 

4.  Most  nouns  ending  in  e  mute  or  in  -ion,  -gon,  -son, 
-eur,  -t6,  and  -ti6  are  feminine  ''by  termination"  : 


32  FRENCH  GRAMMAR. 

Une  ecriture,  a  writing  (scriptura). 
La  victoire,  victory  (victoria). 
La  production,  the  production. 
La  maison,  the  house  (mansionem). 
La  charite,  charity  (charitas). 
L'amitie,  friendship  (amicitia). 
La  le9on,  the  lesson  (lectionem). 
La  grandeur,  grandeur. 

Note. — Many  of  the  nouns  that  come  under  this  rule  are  also 
covered  by  the  preceding  one.  In  general,  all  rules  of  gender  by 
termination  must  be  subject  to  exceptions  ;  but  the  Latin  derivation 
will  be  a  guide  to  most  of  these  exceptions  : 

Le  vice,  vice  (vitium). 

Le  courage,  courage  (cor). 

Le  soup9on,  suspicion  (suspicionem). 

Le  bonheur,  happiness  (hora). 

Le  malheiir,  misfortune  (hora). 

Le  navire,  the  ship  (navirium). 

Le  volume,  the  volume  (volumen). 

Le  deisme,  deism. 

Le  labeur,  labor  (labor). 

6.  Six  nouns  ending  in  -i  are  feminine  : 


La  foi,  faith  (fides). 

La  parol,  the  wall  (paries). 

La  merci,  mercy  (mercedes). 


La  loi,  law  (lex). 

La  fourmi,  the  ant  (formica). 

L'apres-midi,  the  afternoon. 


6.  The  rules  for  gender  by  termination  may  be  summed 
up  as  follows  : 

a.  Masculine  are  nouns  ending  in — 

(1.)  A  vowel  or  a  double  vowel. 

Except  a  few  in  -te,  -tie. 

(3.)  A  nasal  sound,  with  or  without  a  silent  consonant  after  it. 

Except  a  class  in  -ion,  -gon,  and  -son. 

(3.)  A  consonant. 

Except  a  class  (about  1200)  in  -eur. 

(4.)  Some  ending  in  -age,  -ice,  -iste,  -aire. 

b.  Feminine  are  nouns  ending  in — 


GENDER   OF   NOUNS.  33 

(1.)  E  mute  preceded  by  a  vowel. 
Witli  a  few  exceptions. 
(2.)  -ane,  -aine,  -ine,  -agne,  -aigne,  -ogne. 
(3.)  -elle,  -ille,  -aille,  -eille,  -ouille. 
(4.)  -iere,  -ure. 
(5.)  -ette,  -otte. 

(6.)  -asse,  -esse,  -isse,  -ise,  -ache,  -eche,  -iche,  -oche,  -uche. 
(7.)  -ance,  -ence. 

(8.)  A  large  number  (about  1200)  of  those  in  -eur,  and  manj  in 
-ion,  -9on,  -son. 

(9.)  Abstract  nouns  in  -te  and  -tie. 

72.  Special  Rules  for  gender  of  nouns. 

1.  Titles  of  men  remain  masculine  even  when  applied 
to  women,  as — 

Un  auteur,  an  author  or  authoress. 

Un  orateur,  an  orator,  male  or  female. 

Un  ecrivain,  a  writer,       "  " 

Le  charlatan,  the  charlatan,  male  or  female. 

Le  temoin,  the  witness,  **  ** 

Note. — The  feminine  of  the  title  of  a  man  denotes  the  wife  of  the 
personage,  as — 
Madame  la  generale,  the  General's  wife. 
La  prefete,  the  Prefect's  wife. 

2.  A  few  nouns  may  be  of  either  gender  without  change 
of  form,  viz. : 

La  foudre,  the  thunder  (masculine  when  used  figuratively,  as, 
Oe  foudre  de  guerre,  this  thunderbolt  of  war). 

La  sentinelle,  the  sentinel  (sometimes  masculine  in  poetry  ;  ap- 
parently originally  a  collective  or  abstract  noun). 

La  dupe,  the  dupe. 

Un  hymne  (hymnus),  a  hymn  (often  feminine). 

73.  Double  Forms. — Some  nouns  have  a  feminine, 
formed  after  the  analogy  of  the  feminine  of  adjectives. 
These  are  often  called  *^  adjective  nouns."  The  most 
common  are  : — 

2* 


34  FREKCH   GRAMMAR. 

Berger,  bergere,  shepherd,  shepherdess. 

Orphelin,  orpheline,  orphan. 

Ours  (Sec.  53,  3),  ourse,  bear,  she-bear. 

Ami,  amie,  friend. 

Chien,  chienne,  dog,  slut. 

Chretien,  Chretienne  (Sec.  54),   Christian. 

Lion,  lionne,  lion,  lioness. 

Jumeau,  jumelle,  twin. 

Poete,  poetesse,  poet,  poetess. 

Ane,  anesse,  ass,  jenny. 

Prince,  princesse,  prince,  princess. 

Dieu,  deesse,  God,  goddess. 

Danseur,  danseuse,  dancer. 

Menteur,  menteuse,  liar. 

Enchanteur,  enchanteresse,        enchanter. 

Pecheur,  pecheresse,  sinner. 

P^cheur,  p^cheuse,  fisherman,  fisherwoman. 

Acteur,  actrice,  actor,  actress. 

Serviteur,  servante,  servant. 

Heros,  heroine  (Sec.  45),  hero,  heroine. 

Note. — As  in  English,  some  nouns  have  a  feminine  of 
entirely  distinct  form  and  origin.  These  require  no  fur- 
ther notice.     Examples : 

Homme,  femme,  man,  woman. 

Pere,  mere,  father,  mother. 

Oncle,  tante,  uncle,  aunt. 

Ooq,  poule,  cock,  hen. 

74.  Double  Gender. — Some  nouns  have  different  mean- 
ings in  the  different  genders,  with  no  change  of  form.  This 
double  meaning  often  arises  from  a  difference  of  origin. 
The  following  list  contains  all  those  in  common  use  : 

List  of  Nouns  with  Double  Gender. 

Un  aide,  a  helper,  une  aide,  a  help. 

Un  aigle,  an  eagle,  une  aigle,  a  standard. 

Un  air  (aer),  an  air,  une  aire  (area),  an  area. 

Un  atme  (alnus),  an  alder,  une  aune  (ulna),  an  ell. 

Le  barbe  (barbarie),  the  horse,  la  barbe  (barba),  the  beard. 


GEJsTDER  OF  KOUKS. 


35 


Le  Bourgogne  (a  country), 

Le  coche  (conclia),  tlie  coach, 

Le  decime,  -|^  of  a  franc, 

Un  echo  (see  Sec.  40),  an  echo, 

Un  exemple,  an  instance, 

Le  garde,  the  defender, 

Le  guide,  the  guide, 

Le  livre  (liber),  the  book, 

Le  manche,  the  handle, 

Le  memoire,  the  bill,  memoir, 

Merci,  thanks, 

Le  mode,  the  mood, 

Un  office,  a  duty,  service, 

Le  page  (Ttaidior),  the  boy, 

Le  paillasse,  the  clown, 

Le  palme  (palmus),  palm  of  the 

hand, 
Le  pendule,  the  pendulum, 
Le  plane,  the  plane-tree, 
Le  po^le  (pensiles),  the  stove, 
Le  poste  (positum),  the  station, 
Le  pourpre,  purple  color, 
Le  pretexte  (praetextum),  the 

pretext, 
Le  somme  (somnus),  the  nap, 

sleep, 
Le  souris  (subridere),  the  smile, 
Le  temple  (templum),  the  temple, 

building  for  worship, 
Le  tour  (tornus),  the  turn,  trick, 
Le  trompette,  the  trumpeter, 
Le  vapeur,  the  steamboat, 
Le  vase,  the  vase, 
Le  voile,  the  veil. 


la  bourgogne  (a  wine). 

la  coche,  the  sow. 

la  decime,  the  tithe. 

(une)  EchOj  Echo,  a  nymph. 

une  exemple,  a  copy. 

la  garde,  safe-keeping. 

la  guide,  the  rein. 

la  Uvre  (libra),  the  pound. 

la  manche,  the  sleeve. 

la  memoire,  memory. 

la  merci,  mercy. 

la  mode,  the  fashion. 

une  office,  a  pantry,  etc. 

la  page  (pagina)^  the  page. 

la  paillasse,  straw-bed. 

la  palme  (palma),  palm-tree. 

la  pendule,  the  clock. 

la  plane,  the  plane,  a  tool. 

la  po^le  (patella),  frying-pan. 

la  poste  (posita),  post-office. 

la  pourpre,  the  royal  purple. 

la  pretexte  (prsetexta),  a  garment. 

la  somme  (summa),  the  sum. 

la  souris  (sorex),  the  mouse. 
,  la  tempe  (formerly  temple,  from 
tempera),  temple  of  the  head, 
la  tour  (turris),  the  tower. 
la  trompette,  the  trumpet. 
la  vapeur,  steam,  gas. 
la  vase,  slime,  mud. 
la  voile,  the  sail. 


75.  Compound  Nouns. - 
is  as  follows : 


-The  gender  of  compound  nouns 


1.   Compound  nouns  formed  of  two  nouns  take  tlie  gen- 
der of  the  first,  as — 

Le  chou-fleur,  the  cauliflower. 
La  chevrefeuille,  the  honeysuckle. 


36  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Compound  nouns  containing  but  one  noun  as  an  ele- 
ment, take  the  gender  of  that  one  : 

Une  porte-plume,  a  penholder. 
Le  contre-coupj  the  rebound. 

3.  Compound  nouns  formed  from  indeclinable  words  are 
masculine  (Sec.  70,  3) : 

Le  passe-volant,  the  intruder. 
Le  pourboire,  the  drink-money. 
Le  vol-au-vent,  a  kind  of  pie. 

NUMBER    OF    NOUNS. 

76.  General  Rule  for  Number. — The  plural  of  nouns  is 
generally  formed  by  adding  s  to  the  singular  : 

Le  poisson,  the  fish,     les  poissons. 
Lte  dent,        the  tooth,  les  dents. 
L'homme,     the  man,    les  hommes. 
Note. — In  polysyllables  ending  in  -nt,  many  writers  omit  the 
t  in  the  plural : 

L'enfant,  the  child,    les  enfans. 

Le  geant,  the  giant,   les  geans. 

Le  sentiment,  sentiment,  les  sentimens. 

77.  Special  Rules  for  Number. 

1.  Nouns  ending  in  -au  and  -eu  add  x  to  form  the  plural : 

Le  feu,  the  fire,  les  feux. 
Le  lieu,  the  place,  les  lieux. 
Le  jeu,    the  game,  les  jeux. 

2.  Seven  nouns  ending  in  -ou  form  the  plural  in  x,  after 
the  analogy  of  nouns  in  -au  and  -eu.  They  are  all  mascu- 
line. 

Le  bijou,  the  jewel,  les  bijoux,  jewels. 

Le  caillou,  the  pebble,  les  cailloux,  pebbles. 

Le  chou,  the  cabbage,  les  choux,  cabbages. 

Le  genou,  the  knee,  les  genoux,  knees. 

Le  hibou,  the  owl,  les  hiboux,  the  owls. 

Le  joujou,  the  plaything,  les  joujoux,  playthings. 

Le  pou,  the  louse,  les  poux,  lice. 

Note. — Other  nouns  ending  in  -ou  add  s  to  form  the  plural : 


KUMBER   OF  NOUNS.  37 


Le  trou,  the  hole,  les  trous,  holes. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  -al  form  the  plural  by  changing  -al 
into -aux: 

Le  cheval,  the  horse,  les  chevaux,  horSies. 

L'h6pital,  the  hospital,  les  hSpitaux,  hospitals. 

Le  metal,  the  metal,  les  metaux,  metals. 

Le  rival,  the  rival,  les  rivaux,  rivals. 
Exceptions. — The  following  nouns  ending  in  -al  form  the  plural 
by  adding  s.    They  are  all  masculine  : 

L'aval,  the  surety,  les  avals,  sureties. 

Le  bal,  the  ball,  les  bals,  balls. 

Le  bocal,  the  jar,  les  bocals,  jars. 

Le  cal,  the  callosity,  les  cals,  callosities. 

Le  carnaval,  the  carnival,  les  carnavals,  carnivals. 

Le  chacal,  the  jackal,  les  chacals,  jackals. 

Le  local,  the  premises,  les  locals,  places,  premises. 

Le  narval,  the  narwhal,  les  narvals,  narwhals. 

Le  pal,  the  pale  (heraldry),  les  pals. 

Le  regal,  the  entertainment,  les  regals. 

Le  serval,  the  serval,  les  servals. 

4.  A  few  nouns  ending  in  -ail  form  the  plural  in  -aux 
after  the  analogy  of  nouns  in  -al.     They  are  : 

Le  bail,  the  lease,  les  baux,  leases. 

Le  corail,  the  coral,  les  coraux,  corals. 

L'email,  the  enamel,  les  emaux,  enamels. 

Le  plumail,  the  feather-brush,  les  plumaux,  brushes. 

Le  soupirail,  the  air-hole,  les  soupiraux,  air-holes. 

Le  vantail,  the  leaf  of  a  double  les  vantaux,  double  doors, 
door, 

Le  vitrail,  the  church  window,  les  vitraux,  windows. 
One  has  both  forms.  Pail,  garlic,  ails  or  aux. 
Note. — Other  nouns  ending  in  -ail  form  the  plural  in  s,  as — 

Le  portail,  the  portal,  les  portails,  doorways. 

Le  gouvernail,  the  helm,  les  gouvernails,  helms. 

L'eventail,  the  fan.  les  eventails,  fans. 

5.  Nouns  ending  in  s,  x,  or  z,  undergo  no  change  to  form 
the  plural,  as — 


38  FKE]N"GH   GRAMMAR. 

Le  fils,  the  son,         les  fils,  sons. 
Le  nez,  the  nose,       les  nez,  noses. 
La  voix,  the  voice,    les  voix,  voices. 

6.  The  following  may  be  said  to  be  irregular : 

Le  betail,  the  cattle,   les  bestiaux. 

L'oeil,  the  eye,  les  yeux,  the  eyes. 

(Through  the  Old  French  ids,  ioauls,  ieus.) 
CEil  has  also  the  regular  plural  in  oeils-de-bcBuf,  bull's-eye  win- 
dows, or  circles  in  soup. 
Three  have  two  forms  in  the  plural,  vrith  different  meanings  : 

Le  ciel,  heaven,  sky,  f^^^^^'  ^1^^*^'  «^«^  «f  P^^^^^^^' 
(cieux,  heavens. 

L'aleul,  ancestor,  J  ^^^«'  a^^^estors. 

I  aieux,  grandfathers. 

Le  travaU,  work,  labor,  i  *^^^^^'^' ^^^^f^'        . 

( travaux,  public  business. 

7.  Proper  names  are  usually  indeclinable,  but  some 
writers  add  the  mark  of  the  plural  when  proper  names 
are  used  with  numerals,  as — 

Les  deux  Racine, 


Les  deux  Rousseau, 


Les  deux  Racines,  '^^^  *^«  ^^^^^^«- 


,1' 


Les  deux  Rousseaux,  '^^^  *^«  Eousseaus. 

78.  Double  Meanings. — Some  nouns  have  different  mean- 
ings in  the  two  numbers.  The  following  list  contains 
those  in  common  use  : 

L'aboi  (mas.),  barking,  les  abois,  death-struggle,  (at)  bay. 

L'arret  (mas.),   judgment,   de-    les  arrets,  arrest. 

cision, 
L'assise  (fern.),  the  layer,  stratum,  les  assises,  assizes. 
Le  ciseau,  the  chisel,  les  ciseaux,  scissors. 

L'eau  (fem.),  the  water,  les  eaux,  watering-places,  water- 

works. 
L'eflfet  (mas.),  the  effect,  les  effets,  property,  effects. 

L'epingle  (fem.),  the  pin,  les  epingles,  pin  money. 

Le  fer,  the  iron,  sword,  les  fers,  fetters,  irons. 

Le  gage,  the  pledge,  pawn,  les  gages,  wages. 


NUMBER   OF   KOUKS.  39 

Le  limbe,  the  limb,  les  limbes,  limbo,  limbus 

La  lunette,  tbe  telescope,  les  lunettes,  eye-glasses. 

L'ouie  (fem.),  bearing,  les  ouies,  gills  of  a  fisb. 

La  troupe,  the  troop,  band,  les  troupes,  soldiers,  troops. 

La  trousse,  bundle,  truss,  les  trousses,  breeches. 

L'usage  (mas.),  use,  habit,  les  usages,  prayer-books. 

La  vacance,  vacancy  in  oflace,  les  vacances,  holidays.  • 

79.  Collective  Nouns. — A  few  nouns  are  used  only  in  the 
plural.  The  following  list  contains  those  in  common 
use  : 

Les  alentours  (mas.),  neighborhood. 

Les  annales  (fem.),  annals,  histories. 

Les  confins  (mas.),  borders,  confines. 

Les  delices  (fem.),  delight,  pleasures. 

Les  depens  (mas.),  expense. 

Les  entreiilles  (fem.),  entrails. 

Les  environs  (mas.),  neighborhood. 

Les  frais  (mas.),  expenses. 

Les  matines  (fem.),  morning  prayers.  Matins. 

Les  moeurs  (fem.),  manners,  morals. 

Les  pleurs  (mas.),  tears.     (V.  Hugo  has  pleur.) 

Les  tenebres  (fem.),  darkness,  shades. 

Les  thermes  (mas.),  hot  baths. 

Les  v^pres  (fem.),  evening  prayers,  Vespers. 

80.  Number  of  Compounds. — Compound  nouns  take  the 
mark  of  the  plural  in  each  substantive  which  composes 
them,  viz. : 

1.  When  a  compound  noun  is  composed  of  two  nouns, 
or  a  noun  and  an  adjective,  both  take  the  mark  of  the 
plural,  as — 

Le  beau-frere,  brother-in-law,  beaux-freres. 

Le  chef-lieu,  principal  town,  chefs-lieux. 

Le  loup-garou,  bug-bear,  were-wolf,  loups-garous. 

Le  pot-pourri,  medley,  pots-pourris. 

Le  blano-bec  (white-beak),  green-horn,  blancs-becs. 

Exception. — When  a  preposition  comes  between  the  two  nouns 
which  form  a  compound  noun,  the  first  only  takes  the  mark  of  the 
plural. 


40  FRE]!^CH   GRAMMAR. 

Les  arcs-en-ciel,  tlie  rainbows. 
Les  chefs-d'cBuvre,  the  master-pieces. 
Les  aides-de-camp,  tlie  aides-de-camp. 
Les  eaux-de-vie,  tlie  brandies. 

2.  When  a  compound  noun  is  composed  of  a  noun  and 
some  indeclinable  word,  only  the  noun  takes  the  mark  of 
the  plural,  as — 

Les  semi-tons,  tlie  semitones. 
Les  sans-culottes,  the  ragamuffins. 
Les  vice-rois,  the  viceroys. 

3.  When  a  compound  word  is  entirely  composed  of  in- 
declinable words,  it  takes  no  change  to  form  the  plural, 
as — 

Les  passe-partout,  the  master-keys. 
Des  pourboire,  drink-money,  fees. 
Des  tout-ou-rien,  neck-or-nothings. 

Note. — Usage  varies  a  little  with  regard  to  the  last  two  cases. 
The  Academy  authorizes  the  above. 

CASE   OF   NOUNS. 

81.  There  are  in  French  no  case-endings  and  no  de- 
clensions of  nouns.  Pronouns,  however,  have  separate 
forms  in  most  instances  for  three  different  cases,  the  case 
of  the  Subject  (Nominative),  the  case  of  the  Direct  Object 
(Accusative),  and  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object  (Dative). 
These  will  be  treated  of  in  the  chapter  on  pronouns. 

The  Nominative  case  of  nouns  is  used  as  in  English, 
for  the  Subject  of  the  verb,  and  as  the  case  of  direct 
address  (Vocative). 

The  Possessive  case  of  nouns  is  supplied  by  the  use  of 
the  preposition  de. 

The  Indirect  Object  (Dative  case)  of  nouns  is  supplied 
by  the  use  of  the  preposition  a. 

The  Direct  Object  (Accusative  case)  or  Objective  case 
of  nouns  alone  requires  special  notice.  It  is  used  very 
nearly  as  in  English  : 

1.  The  objective  case  is  used  for  the  direct  object  of 
transitive  verbs,  and  also  after  some  intransitive  verbs 
(accusative  of  kindred  meaning  in  Latin) : 


CASE   OF   KOUKS.  41 

Dieu  a  cree  le  ciel  et  la  terre.  God  made  tlie  heaven  and  the 
earth. 

Jouer  un  jeu,  to  play  a  play  (a  game). 

Note. — When  the  verb  governs  two  objects,  one  is  often  a  predi- 
cate noun,  as  in  English  : 

De  simple  soldat,  on  le  fit  sergent.  From  private  soldier  they 
made  him  sergeant. 

2.  The  objective  case  is  used  absolutely,  to  express  time, 
distance,  place,  price,  &c.,  as  in  English  : 

Us  travaillerent  toute  la  nuit,  they  worked  all  night. 
Le  onze  septembre,  nous  decouvrimes  la  terre.    The  11th  of 
September  we  discovered  land. 
J'sd  couru  toute  la  ville.     I  ran  through  the  whole  city. 
On  ne  le  trouve  nulle  part.     They  don't  find  him  anywhere. 
Vendre  mille  louis  d'or,  to  sell  for  1000  gold  louis. 

Note. — Similar  is  the  elliptical  use  of  the  objective  case  in  the 
expressions — ^bon  jour !  good  day  ! ;  bon  soir !  good  evening  ! ;  bon 
voyage !  pleasant  journey  !,  &c. 

82.  Phrases  with  Nouns. — A  noun  with  a  preposition 
often  forms  an  adjective  phrase,  which  is  usually  best 
translated  by  a  compound  noun  : 

Le  pot  au  lait,  the  milk  pitcher. 
(But,  le  pot  de  lait,  the  pitcher  of  milk.) 
La  femme  atix  huitres,  the  oyster- woman. 
La  salle  a  manger,  the  dining-room. 
5     Li  pot  a  la  creme,  the  cream-pot. 
Le  mal  de  t^te,  the  headache. 
Un  lit  de  plumes,  a  feather-bed. 
Un  bateau  a  vapeur,  a  steamboat. 
Un  maison  a  deux  etages,  a  two-story  house. 


42   .  fee?n'ch  grammar. 

CHAPTER  lY.— ADJECTIVES. 

GENDER  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

83.  General  Rules. — Adjectives  have  in  French  two  gen- 
ders only,  masculine  and  feminine.  The  feminine  always 
ends  in  e  mute,  and  often  differs  from  the  masculine  also 
in  other  ways.    See  special  rules  in  succeeding  sections. 

General  rules  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Adjectives  ending  in  e  mute  have  the  same  form  in 
the  feminine  : 

La  jeune  princesse  et  le  jeune  prince,  the  young  princess  and  the 
young  prince. 

2.  Most  adjectives  not  ending  in  e  mute,  add  e  mute 
to  form  the  feminine  : 

Petit,  petite,  small. 
Joli,  jolie,  pretty. 


Grand,  grande,  great. 


Pur,  pure,  pure. 
Clair,  claire,  clear. 
Civil,  civile,  civil. 


Note. — Adjectives  ending  in  -gu  take  a  diaeresis  with  the  e  mute, 
which  remains  silent. 

Aigu,  aigue,  acute.  |  Oontigu,  contigu5,  contiguus. 

Ambig^  ambiguS,  ambiguus. 

84.  Special  Rule. — Many  adjectives  derived  from  the 
Latin  have  in  the  masculine  a  shortened  or  weakened  form, 
and  the  feminine  returns  to  the  stronger  form  of  tJie  word 
from  which  it  is  derived.  Some  others  follow  the  analogy 
of  these.    These  changes  are  as  follows  : 

85.  Adjectives  ending  in  -el,  -eil,  -ol,  -ul,  -en,  -on,  -et,  -ot, 
or-s,  generally  double  the  last  letter,  those  in  -f  change  f  to 
V,  those  in  -x  change  x  to  s,  and  those  in  -er,  -ef,  change  e  to 
b,  before  adding  e  mute  (having  the  same  effect  on  the 
sound  as  the  doubling  of  the  consonant)  : 

Cruel,  cruelle  (crudelis),  cruel. 

Pareil,  pareille  (pariculus,  from  par),  equal. 

Mol,  moUe  (mollis),  soft. 

Nul,  nulle  (nullus),  none. 


GEXDER   OF   ADJECTIYES.  43 

Ancien,  ancienne  (Late  Lat.  antiamis,  from  ante),  ancient. 
Bon,  bonne  (bonus),  good. 
Muet,  muette  (mutus),  silent. 
Net,  nette  (nitidus),  neat. 
Sot,  sotte  (Rabbin,  scboteh  ?),  foolish. 
Gros,  grosse  (grossus),  big,  coarse. 
Expres,  expresse  (expressus),  express. 
Bref,  breve  (brevis),  short. 
Ourieux,  curieuse  (curiosus),  curious. 
Jaloux,  jalouse  (zelosus),  jealous. 
Leger,  legere  (Late  Lat.  leviarius),  light. 
Fier,  fiere  (ferns),  proud. 
Note. — One  in  -11  follows  this  analogy  : 
Gentil,  gentille  (gentilis),  elegant. 

Exception  1. — Some  ending  in  -et  follow  the  general 
rule,  adding  e  mute  and  taking  tlie  grave  accent.  These 
are  mostly  from  Latin  adjectives  in  -etus.     They  are — 

Complet,  complete  (completus),  complete. 

Ooncret,  concrete  (concretus),  concrete. 

Discret,  discrete  (discretus),  discreet. 

Inquiet,  inquiete  (inquietus),  restless. 

Replet,  replete  (repletus),  lusty,  full. 

Secret,  secrete  (secretus),  secret. 

Excep.  2. — A  few  in  -ot  follow  the  general  rule,  simply 
adding  e  mute,  viz.  : 

Oagot,  cagote  (canis  Gothus),  hypocritical. 

Devot,  devote  (devotus),  devout. 

Idiot,  idiote  (idiota),  idiotic. 

Manchot,  manchote   (Late  Lat.  mancus),  one-armed. 

Mat,  mate,  checkmate. 

Pr^t,  pr^te  (prsestus),  ready. 

Ragot,  ragote,  short,  undersized. 

Excep.  3. — A  few  in  s  also  follow  tlie  general  tale  : 

Fran9ais,  francaise,  French. 
Mauvais,  mauvaise,  bad,  evil. 
Obtus,  obtuse  (obtusus),  obtuse. 
;,  rase  (rasus),  smooth,  shorn,  &c. 


44  FREl^CH  GRAMMAR. 

Excep.  4. — One  in  x  and  one  in  1  also  follow  the  general 
rule,  only  adding  e  mute,  viz. :    . 

Prefix,  prefixe  (prsefixus),  appointed,  prefixed. 
Espagnol,  espagnole,  Spanisli. 

86.  1.  Five  Adjectives  ending  in  1,  have  two  forms  in  the 
masculine,  the  first  used  before  a  consonant,  and  the  se- 
cond before  a  vowel  sound,  viz. : 

Bel,         beau,  fem.   belle  (bellus),  beautiful. 

Fol,         fou,  fem.   folle  (follis),  foolish. 

Mol,        mou,  fem.   moUe  (mollis),  soft. 

Nouvel,  nouveau,         fem.    nouvelle  (novellus),  new. 

Vieil,       vieux,  fem.   vieille  (vetulus),  old. 

Note. — Of  these  vieil  has  either  form  before  a  vowel  sound  :  vieil 
homme  j  vieux  ivrogne.  The  others  sometimes  use  the  first  form 
before  a  vowel  sound  when  used  adverbially  :  mol  et  doux  j  bel  et 
bien,  &c. 

2.  Adjectives  ending  in  c  generally  have  the  feminine 
in  -que,  and  those  in  -ng  have  the  feminine  in  -gne,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  hard  sound  of  the  c  and  g,  as — 
Caduc,  caduque,  infirm.         I         Long,  longue,  long. 
Public,  publique,  public.  Oblong,  oblongue,  oblong. 

Turo,  turque,  Turkish.  | 

Note. — One  retains  the  c  and  also  adds  -que : 

Grec,  grecque,  Greek. 
Exception. — A  few  ending  in  c  have  in  the  feminine  the  ending 
-che,  viz.  : 

Blanc,  blanche,  white. 
Franc,  franche,  free. 
Sec,  seche,  dry. 
So  also,  by  the  same  analogy — 

Frziis,  fraiche,  fresh. 

87.  Irregular  Adjectives. — Some  adjectives  are  said  to  be 
irregular  m  the  feminine  ;  but  these  may  usually  be  ex- 
plained by  the  Latin  derivation,  or  the  analogy  of  some  of 
the  above  classes. 

Absous,  absoute  (absolutus),  absolved. 
Benin,  benigne  (benignus),  benign. 


GENDER  OF  ADJECTIVES.  45 

Ooi,  coite  (quietus),  snug,  quiet. 
Doux,  douce  (dulcis),  sweet. 
Faux,  fausse  (falsus),  false. 
Favori,  favorite,  favorite,  darling. 
Frais,  fraiche,  fresli. 
Jumeau,  jumelle  (gemellus),  twin. 
Malin,  maligna  (malignus),  malign. 
Roux,  rousse  (russus),  red. 
Tiers,  tierce  (tertius),  tliird,  tertian. 
Vieux  (vieil)j  vieille,  old. 

88.  Defective  Adjectives. — Some  adjectives  are  found 
only  in  one  gender. 

1.  The  following  are  only  masculine  : 

Ohatain,  chestnut-colored. 

Dispos,  nimble,  alert. 

Fat,  foppish. 

Hebreu,  Hebrew. 

Negrier,  slave  ;  vaisseau  negrier,  slave  ship. 

2.  The  following  are  only  feminine  : 

Orasse,  gross  ;  ignorance  crasse,  crass  ignorance. 

Cursive,  running  ;  ecriture  cursive,  running  hand. 

Efiectrice  (with  cause),  efficient  cause. 

Franque  (with  langue),  Frankish  language. 

Oceane  (with  mer),  world-ocean,  great  sea. 

Pleniere,  plenary  (with  indulgence,  &c.). 

Romane  (with  langue),  Romance  language. 
Note. — The  adjective  grand  is  often  used  indeclinably  in  the 
phrases  grand  mere,  grand  meres,  grand  rue,  &c.,  usually  writ- 
ten with  an  apostrophe  which  originated  in  mistake  :  grand'mere, 
grand'tante,  &c.  This  form  is  a  remnant  of  the  Old  French  inde- 
clinable adjective. 

89.  Plural  of  Adjectives. — Adjectives  form  their  plural 
in  general  by  the  same  rules  as  nouns. 

1.  Five   adjectives   which   have  a  double  form  in  the 
masculine  singular,  bel,  nouvel,  vieil,  fol,  and  mol,  form  a 
plural  masculine  only  in  the  form  ending  in  u : 
beaux,  nouveaux,  vieux,  fous,  mous. 


46  FEEIfCH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  One  in  -eu  has  the  plural  in  s  : 

bleu,  bleus  (not  bleux),  blue. 

3.  A  few  in  -al  have  the  plural  in  -als,  not  in  -aux,  yiz.: 
fatal,  final,  matinal,  natal,  naval,  pascal : — fatals,  finals,  &c. 

4.  A  few  in  -al  are  often  found  with  -als  in  the  plural, 
though  usage  favors  the  plural  in  -aux,  viz.: 

amical,  boreal,  conjugal,  filial,  frugal,  labial,  lingual,  medial,  na- 
sal, nuptial,  oval,  pastoral,  pectoral,  special,  total,  virginal,  vocaL 

5.  A  few  in  -al  have  no  masculine  plural,  viz.: 

canonical,  frugal,  glacial,  jovial,  theatred. 
One  has  no  feminine  plural,  viz. :  amical. 

90.  Plural  of  Compound  Adjectives. — When  the  first  part 
of  a  compound  adjective  is  considered  as  used  adverbially, 
qualifying  the  second  part,  it  is  invariable,  and  the  second 
part  alone  takes  the  mark  of  the  plural.  When  the  two 
parts  are  considered  as  each  separately  qualifying  the 
noun,  both  take  the  mark  of  the  plural.    Examples  : 

Demi-sauvages,  half -civilized. 
Des  enfans  nouveau-nes,  new-bom  infants. 
!De  I'avoine  clair-semee,  oats  thinly  sown. 
Des  rois  tout-puissants,  all-powerful  kings. 
Des  oranges  aigres-douces,  acid-sweet  oranges. 
Les  cheveux  chatains-brims,  chestnut-brown  hair. 
Une  femme  toute-puissante,  an  all-powerful  woman. 
Note. — Exceptions  occur,  where  the  principle  seems  lost  sight  of, 
and  usage  varies  somewhat. 

AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

91.  General  Eule. — An  adjective  agrees  with  the  noun 
which  it  qualifies  in  gender  and  number. 

Special  Rules. 

1.  An  adjective  qualifying  two  or  more  nouns  is  in  the 
plural  : 

J'ai  trouve  la  porte  et  la  fen^tre  fermees.  I  found  the  door  and 
the  window  closed. 


AGKEEMEKT   OF   ADJECTIVES.  47 

Une  resolution  et  une  responsabilite  si  terribles,  so  terrible  a 
resolution  and  responsibility. 

2.  An  adjective  qualifying  two  nouns  of  different  gen- 
ders is  masculine,  as — 

Mon  frere  et  ma  sceur  sont  tres-bons.  My  brother  and  my  sister 
are  very  kind. 

3.  An  adjective  qualifying  two  nouns  connected  by  ou, 
'or/  or  with  the  conjunction  omitted,  agrees  in  gender 
with  the  nearest : 

Le  fer,  la  flamme,  etait  tout  pr^te.    The  sword,  the  fire  were  all 


Un  courage  ou  une  prudence  etonnante,  an  astonishing  courage 
or  prudence. 

4.  Adjectives  used  adverbially  are  indeclinable  : 

Ces  roses  sentent  (Sec.  35,  5),  tres-bon.     These  roses  smell  good. 

Les  cerfs  corurent  tres-vite.    Stags  run  very  fast. 

92.  Exceptions  and  Anomalous  Forms. 

1.  The  adjectives  demi,  'half,'  nu,  'bare/  excepts,  'ex- 
cept,' y  compris,  'included,'  suppos6,  'supposed,'  ci-joint 
and  ci-inclus,  'enclosed,'  'annexed,' are  invariable  when 
they  precede  the  noun  to  which  they  belong,  but  agree 
with  the  noun  when  they  follow  it  : 

Une  demi-heure,  half  an  hour. 

Une  heure  et  demie,  an  hour  and  a  half. 

Marcher  nu-pieds,  to  walk  bare-foot. 

Avoir  les  pieds  nues,  to  have  the  feet  bare. 

Excepte  les  deux  premieres  pages,       )  the  two  first  pages  ex- 

Les  deux  premieres  pages  exceptees,  )       cepted. 

Y  compris  la  somme  de  cent  francs,  including  the  sum  of  100  francs. 

Copie  de  ma  lettre  est  ci-jointe,  a  copy  of  my  letter  is  annexed. 

2.  The  adjective  feu,  '  deceased,'  '  late,'  is  invariable 
when  it  precedes  other  modifiers  of  the  noun  (article  or 
pronoun),  but  agrees  with  the  noun  when  it  stands  next 
to  it : 

Feu  la  reine,  or,  la  feue  reine,  the  late  queen. 

Feu  mes  freres,  or,  mes  feues  freres,  my  deceased  brothers. 


48  FEEKCH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  Color  is  often  expressed  by  a  noun  used  apparently 
as  an  indeclinable  adjective,  but  really  with  an  ellipsis  of 
couleur  de  : 

Des  souliers  (couleur  de)  rose,  rose-colored  shoes. 
Des  gants  (couleur  de)  soufre,  yellow  gloves  (sulplmr-color). 
Couleur  is  here  used  absolutely.     See  Sec.  81. 
Remzirk. — For    adjectives    requiring  certain    prepositions    after 
them,  see  Sec.  168. 

POSITION   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

93.  General  Rule. — The  adjective  usually  follows  the 
noun  which  it  qualifies  ;  but  its  position  is  often  changed 
for  euphony  or  emphasis,  as  follows  : 

1.  Monosyllabic  adjectives  generally  precede  the  nouns 
which  they  qualify  : 

Un  vieux  soldat,  an  old  soldier. 

Le  bleu  manteau,  the  blue  cloak. 

Une  longue  entreprise,  a  long  undertaking. 

2.  In  general,  the  shorter  word  precedes  : 

Lois  sanguinaires,  bloody  laws. 
Un  lion  furieux,  a  furious  lion. 
Des  regions  lointaines,  distant  regions. 

Note. — These  rules  are  of  course  subject  to  exceptions,  especially 
in  poetry  ;  indeed  the  position  of  words,  where  it  does  not  affect  the 
meaning,  belongs  to  rhetoric  rather  than  grammar,  and  is  somewhat 
affected  by  taste  and  by  perception  of  the  so-called  "genius  of  the 
language." 

94.  Adjectives  with  Double  Meanings. — Some  adjectives 
have  a  different  meaning  according  as  they  follow  or  pre- 
cede the  nouns  which  they  qualify  : 

Un  homme  brave,  a  courageous  man. 

Un  brave   homme,  a  kind,  good  man. 

Une  certaine  histoire,  a  certain  history,  story. 

Une  histoire  certaine,  a  reliable  history 

Un  cher  enfant,  a  dear  child. 

Une  robe  chere,  a  costly  dress. 

Une  commtme  voix,  an  unanimous  voice. 


'     COMPAEISOI^   OF  ADJECTIVES.  49 

Une  voix  commune,  an  ordinary  voice. 

Une  cruelle  femme,  a  cruel  woman. 

Une  femme  cruelle,  a  disagreeable  woman. 

Une  fausse  clef,  a  false  key. 

La  clef  fausse,  the  wrong  key. 

Un  grand  homme,  a  great  man. 

Un  homme  grandie,  a  big  man. 

li'air  grand,  a  noble  face,  appearance. 

Le  grand  air,  distinguisbed  manners. 

Un  honn^te  homme,  an  honest  man. 

Un  homme  honn^te,  a  nice,  good  man. 

Un  mauvais  air,  an  awkward  appearance. 

L'air  mauvais,  a  bad,  wicked  expression. 

Un  nouveau  livre,  a  new  book  (just  out). 

Un  livre  nouveau,  a  new  book  (an  additional  one). 

Un  livre  neuf,  a  new  book  (not  worn). 

Un  nouvel  habit,  another  coat. 

Un  habit  nouveau,  a  fashionable  coat. 

Un  pauvre  historien,  a  bad  historian. 

Un  historien  pauvre,  an  indigent  historian. 

Une  petite  femme,  a  small  woman. 

Une  femme  petite,  a  mean  woman. 

Un  plaisant  conte,  a  funny,  ridiculous  story. 

Un  conte  plsdsant,  an  agreeable  story. 

Un  seul  enfant,  a  single  child. 

Un  enfant  seul,  a  child  alone. 

Un  simple  soldat,  a  mere  private  soldier. 

Un  soldat  simple,  a  foolish  soldier. 

COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

95.  Three  Degrees. — Adjectives  have  in  French,  as  in 
English,  three  degrees  of  comparison,  the  positive  or  ordi- 
nary form,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative.  The  last 
two  are  formed  as  is  described  in  the  following  sections : 

Comparative  Degree. 

1.  The  comparative  degree  is  formed  (with  three  excep- 
tions), by  prefixing  the  adverb  plus,  *  more,'  to  the  positive. 

L'honneur  est  plus  puissant,  plus  sacre  que  la  loi.    Honor  is  more 
powerful,  more  sacred  than  law. 
3 


50  FEEi^^CH   GRAMMAE. 

Des  manx  encore  plus  longs  et  plus  cruels  que  les  siens  (Fen- 
elon),  evils  more  continued  and  more  cruel  than  their  own. 

2.  A  comparative  of  diminution  is  also  formed  with  the 
adverb  moins,  *  less  ' : 

II  est  moins  malheureux  que  son  frere.  He  is  less  unfortunate 
than  his  brother. 

3.  Three  adjectives  retain,  in  the  comparatiye  degree, 
special  forms,  derived  from  the  Latin,  viz.  : 

Bon,  good, — meilleur,  better  (Lat.  melior). 
Mauvais,  bad, — pire,  worse  (Latin  pejor). 
Petit,  small, — moindre,  less  (Lat.  minus). 
Note. — Petit4  and  mauvais  have  also  the  forms  plus  petit,  plus 
mauvais. 

96.  Superlative  Degree.— The  superlative  degree  is  formed 
by  placing  the  definite  article  or  a  possessive  adjective  be- 
fore the  comparative  and  in  agreement  with  the  noun  : — 

Ii'homme  le  plus  fort,  the  strongest  man. 

Les  villes  les  plus  grand^-the  greatest  cities. 

Le  meilleur  ami,  the  best  friend. 

Elle  est  moins  jolie  que  sa  soeur.  She  is  less  pretty  than  her 
sister. 

La  distinction  la  moins  expose  a  I'envie,  the  distinction  least 
exposed  to  envy. 

L'homme  du  monde  le  plus  robuste,  the  most  robust  man  in  the 
world. 

97.  Comparisons. — In  comparing  different  things  together 
the  measure  of  difference  is  expressed  by  the  preposition 
de,  with  the  noun  of  quantity  or  measure  : 

Je  suis  de  deux  ans  plus  age  que  vous.  I  am  two  years  older 
than  you  (older  by  two  years). 

Vous  ^tes  plus  grand  que  moi  de  trois  pouces.  You  are  taller 
than  I  am  by  three  inches  (thumbs). 

Celui-ci  est  de  beaucoup  superieur.    This  one  is  much  superior. 

98.  Reciprocal  Comparison  is  expressed  by  the  following 
phrases,  viz.  : 

1.  Plus — plus,  moins— moins,  plus— moins,  &c.,  without 
the  article  : 


NUMEBALS. 


51 


Plus  il  pleure,  plus  je  ris.    The  more  he  weeps  the  more  I 
laugh. 

Plus  je  fais,  moins  je  gagne.    The  more  I  do  the  less  I  earn. 

2.  Autant — que  expresses  equality  in  quantity ;  aussi — 
que  expresses  equality  in  degree  : 

Le  chien  est  aussi  fort  que  le  loup.    The  dog  is  as  strong  as  the 
wolf. 
Autant  d'eau  que  de  vin,  as  much  wine  as  water. 
II  est  aussi  sage  que  vaillant.    He  is  as  wise  as  he  is  brave. 
Autant  de  tues  que  de  blesse^s,  as  many  dead  as  wounded. 

3.  Si — que,  ^so — as,'  is  used  after  a  negative  : 

n  n'est  pas  si  riche  que  vous.      He  is  not  so  rich  as  you. 

4.  D' autant  plus,  d'autant  moins,  means  'so  much  the 
more/  'so  much  the  less': 

H  est  d'autant  plus  coupable.    He  is  so  much  the  more  guilty. 

NUMERALS. 
99.  Cardinal  Numbers. — Table  : 


1.  Un,  fem.  une. 

2.  Deux(deu). 

3.  Trois  (troi). 

4.  Quatre  (katr). 

5.  Cinq  (sin'.  Sec.  51). 

6.  Six  (siss). 

7.  Sept  (set). 

8.  Huit  (ui). 

9.  Neuf(neuf). 

10.  Dix  (diss) 

11.  Onze. 

12.  Douze. 

13.  Treize  (trez). 

14.  Quatorze  (katorz). 

15.  Qiunze  (Mn'z). 

16.  Seize  (sez). 

17.  Dix-sept  (di-set). 

18.  Dix-huit  (di-zui). 


19.  Dix-neuf  (di-neuf). 

20.  Vingt  (vin'). 

21.  Vingt  et  un  (vin'-te-un). 

22.  Vingt-deux  (vin'-deu). 

23.  Vingt-trois  (vin'-troi). 

&c. 
30.  Treinte  (trin't). 
40.  Quarante  (karan't). 
50.  Cinquante  (sin'kan't). 
60.  Soixante  (soissan't). 

70.  Soixante-dix. 

71.  Soixante-onze, 

72.  Soixante-douze. 

&c. 

80.  Quatre-vingts  (vin'). 

81.  Quatre- vingt-un. 

&c. 
90.  Quatre-vingt-dix. 


62  FEEi^CH   GKAMMAK. 


91.  Quatre-vingt-onze     (vin'- 
ton'z). 
&c. 

100.  Cent  (san'). 

101.  Cent  un  (san' -tun'). 

&c. 
200.  Deux  cents. 


201.  Deux  cent  un. 

1000.  Mille  (mil). 

1001.  Mille  un. 
2000.  Deux  mille. 
1,000,000.  Un  million  (mi-lion'). 
Un  milliard  is  a  thousand  mil- 
lions. 


Notes. — 1.  These  numerals  are  indeclinable  except  un, 
fern,  une;  cent,  plural  cents;  vingt  when  joined  with  a  pre- 
ceding quatre ;  and  million.  Cent  and  quatre-vingts  before 
another  numeral,  however,  are  indeclinable  : 

Trois  cents  personnes,  300  persons. 
Sept  cent  vingt  ecoliers,  720  pupils. 
Quatre-vingts  livres,  80  pounds. 
Quatre-vingt-douze  aunes,  92  yards. 

2.  Million  is  always  preceded  by  un  or  a  numeral  and 
followed  by  de : 

Un  million  d'epingles,  a  million  pins. 

Trois  millions  de  soldats,  three  million  soldiers. 

3.  In  dates  1000  is  mil,  not  mille : 

L*wn  mil  huit  cent  soixante-cinq,  the  year  1865. 

4.  Some  of  the  compound  numerals  may  be  connected 
by  the  conjunction  et,  '  and,'  viz.: 

vingt  et  xm,  soixante  et  dix,  cent  et  im,  trente  et  un,  quarante 
et  un,  &c. 

5.  Collective  numbers  are  sometimes  used,  viz.: 

Une  huitaine,  a  series  or  collection  of  eight. 
Une  dizaine,  a  ten.     Tous  deux,  both  (all  two). 
Une  douzain,  a  dozen ;  une  quinzaine,  15,  &c. 
Une  centaine,  100  ;  un  millier,  1,000,000. 

100.  Expressions  of  Size. — To  express  size  the  verb  avoir, 
*  to  have,' is  used,  and  largeur,^  length,'  hauteur,  *  height,' 
profondeur,  *  depth,'  &c.,  with  de: 

Les  murs  avaient  deux  cents  pieds  de  hauteur.  The  walls  were 
two  hundred  feet  high. 


NUMERALS.  53 

II  a  trenfe  pieds  de  largeur,  it  is  thirty  feet  wide. 
Note. — Two  other  constructions  are  sometimes  used  to  express 
size  : 

1.  Oette  corde  a  trenft  pieds  de  long.    That  rope  is  30  feet  long. 

2.  Le  fleuve  est  large  de  350  pieds.    The  river  is  350  feet  wide. 

101.  Expressions  of  Age. — Age  is  also  expressed  with 
avoir,  as — 

Quelle  age  a-t-elle  ?    How  old  is  she  ? 
Elle  a  trente  deux  ans.     She  is  32  years  old. 

102.  Numbers  of  Sovereigns. — Tlie  cardinal  numbers  are 
used  to  denote  the  number  of  a  sovereign,  except  the  first; 
for  the  second  also  either  the  cardinal  or  ordinal  is  used  : 

Napoleon  premier,  Napoleon  first. 
Charles  second,  or  deux,  Charles  2d. 
Henri  quatre,  Pie  neuf,  Henry  4th,  Pius  9th. 

103.  Days  of  the  Month. — The  cardinal  numbers  are  used 
to  denote  the  days  of  the  month,  except  the  first : 

Le  premier  Mai,  the  first  of  May. 
Le  deux  Fevrier,  February  second. 
Le  trois  d'Avril,  April  third. 

104.  Expressions  of  Time. — The  hours  are  expressed  as 
follows  : 

Deux  heures,  two  o'clock. 
Trois  heures  et  demif  half  past  three. 
Trois  heures  moins  un  quart,  a  quarter  to  three. 
Midi,  twelve  o'clock  noon  ;  minuit,  twelve  at  night. 
(Douze  heura  is  never  used.) 

Other  expressions  of  time  : 

Tous  les  jours,  every  day. 
Tous  les  deux  jours,  every  second  day. 
D'aujourd'hui  en  huit,  a  week  from  to-day. 
II  y  a  un  an,  a  year  ago. 

105.  Ordinal  Numbers. — The  ordinals,  except  first  and 
second,  are  formed  from  the  cardinals  by  adding  -ifeme, 
eliding  e  mute  when  it  ends  the  numeral,  interposing  u 
after  q,  and  changing  f  to  v,  yiz. : 


54  FEEIS^CH   GKAMMAE. 

1st,  premier,  fern,  premiere,  sometimes  unieme. 
2d,  second,       **     seconde,  "  deuxieme. 

5tli,  cinquieme ;   6th,  sixieme ;  21st,  vingt  unieme ;  22d,  vingt 
deuxieme ;  lOOtli,  centieme,  &c. 

Notes. — 1.  Unieme  is  used  only  after  vingt,  trente,  &c. : 

Le  vingt  et  unieme  de  sa  classe,  the  21st  of  liis  class. 

2.  Deuxieme  is   used  after  vingt,  trente,  &c.,   and  usually  in 

a  series  containing  more  than  two.     Otherwise  either  second  or 

deuxieme  may  be  used. 

106.  Fractional  Numbers. — Fractions  are,  with  three  ex- 
ceptions, expressed  by  the  ordinals — 

\,  demi,  fern,  demie,  agreeing  with  the  noun. 

\,  un  tiers  ;  \,  un  quart ;  \,  un  cinquieme  ;  ^,  un  sixieme,  &c. 

Un  pied  et  demi,  trois  livres  et  demie,  une  demi-livre,  deux 
demi-pieds — a  foot  and  a  half,  3^  pounds,  ^  pound,  2  half -feet. 

Notes. — 1.  Some  words  meaning  \  are — 

Une  quarte,  a  quart ;  un  quarteau,  a  quarter  (of  a  ton)  ;  un 
quarteron,  a  quarter  (of  a  pound) ;  un  quartier,  a  quarter  (of  beef,  of 
veal,  of  a  city.) 

2.  Et  may  be  omitted  in  fractions  : 

Une  aune  et  un  quart,  or,  une  aune  un  quart — a  yard  and  a 
quarter. 

CHAPTER  Y.— PROISrOUNS. 

There  are  five  classes  of  pronouns,  the  Personal  Pro- 
noun, including  the  Possessive ;  the  Demonstrative  Pro- 
noun ;  the  Interrogative  Pronoun  ;  the  Kelative  Pronoun  ; 
and  the' Indefinite  Pronouns. 


THE     PERSONAL  PRONOUN. 

107.  Conjunctive  and  Disjunctive  Forms. — The  personal 

ronoun  has  two  classes  of  forms,  called  Conjunctive  and 
^)isjunctive;  the  former  used  in  direct  connection  with  a 
verb,  either  as  subject  or  object,  and  the  latter  standing 
alone,  or  with  prepositions.  All  the  forms  are  derived 
from  the  Latin  ego,  tu,  ille,  &c.,  and  are  as  follows : 


I 


THE   PERSOiTAL   PRONOUK. 


65 


^ 


■^  S^ 


O 

I 

O 

O 


o 


?a 


.*  a 


:  :  : 

*? 

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•-^.^ 

0^ 

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1 

II 
11 

III 

tin 

o 


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o 

g 
1^ 


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CO 


I'll 


a 


a 

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.  c 
p  c  o 


EiSS 


56 


FKEKCH   GRAMMAR. 


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o 

to 

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CD 

.^  o 

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■^  B 

bo  oj 

Jh  <X) 

CO  g 
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o 
o 

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El 

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oa      oi 

•a 

3 

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-3    -3    "S 

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5  1  5 

II  J 

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3  H  3 

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a  1  s 

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ft 

■|  s  s 

09      m      01 
Si       PJ       Ei 
o      o      o 

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5 

BBS 

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>      >      > 

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ill 

i   i   i 

el     fl     PI 

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A  a  a 

3   S   g 
§   §   S 

i 

g  1 

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i    ■  J 

ii 

)^  a  < 

1- 

1 

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s 

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2   ^ 

'I  . 

^   I  > 

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o    S  5i 

©    o  © 

a  ^  j; 

g  ®  ^ 

§•■§  i 

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2   °  ^ 


S   ffl 

O      rj      © 

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I  e  i 

o   *=^  2 

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f -aNIVEHSIXY  I 

USE   OF   THE   PERSOITAL\i^^^;^|^^^\^/  57 

108.  Intensive  Form. — The  disjunctive  personal  pro- 
noun Inis  also  an  intensive  form,  made  by  the  addition  of 
meme,  ^self/  in  the  singular,  and  memes  in  the  plural : 


moi-meme,  myself, 
toi-meme,  thyself, 
soi-mdme,  one's  self. 


nous-m^mes,  ourselves, 
vous-m^mes,  yourselves. 

eux-m^mes,  )    , 

n         A         ?•  tnemselves. 
elles-m^mes,  f  ''"^"^°^^*^°' 


There  is  also  the  form  vous-meme,  '  yourself/  used  when  the 
plural  is  applied  to  an  individual. 

109.  Elision. — Je,  me,  te,  le,  la,  and  se,  lose  their  vowels 
before  a  vowel  sound,  except  when  used  as  enclitics.  This 
elision  is  denoted  by  the  apostrophe  : 

J'ai,  I  have.     Je  I'aime,  I  love  him  (or  her). 
M'aimez  vous  ?    Do  you  love  me  ? 
Ai-je  un  livre  ?    Have  I  a  book  ? 
Menez-le  a  Paris.     Take  it  (or  him)  to  Paris. 
Rend-le  avec  usure.     Repay  it  with  usury. 

USE   OF   THE    PERSONAL   PRONOUN. 

110.  Conjunctive  Forms. — The  conjunctive  is  the  ordi- 
nary form  of  the  pronoun,  and  is  used  when  it  stands  in 
its  usual  position,  and  in  its  regular  relation  with  a  verb, 
either  as  subject,  as  direct  object,  or  as  indirect  object : 

1.  The  conjunctive  form  is  used  when  the  pronoun  pre- 
cedes its  verb  : 

Je  ne  te  puis  blamer.    I  cannot  blame  thee. 

Je  te  le  dis.     I  tell  it  to  thee. 

lis  ont  quelques  defauts,  ma  foi,  je  les  leur  passe  (Rousseau). 

They  have  some  faults,  but,  on  my  faith,  I  forgive  them  them. 

2.  The  conjunctive  form  of  the  pronoun  is  used  after 
the  verb,  in  questions.  The  subject  is  regularly  repeated 
in  questions,  il  or  elle  being  placed  after  the  verb  as  en- 
clitics, with  the  hyphen : 

Le  livre,  est-il  bon  ?    Is  the  book  good  ? 

Ma  mere,  ou  est-elle  ?    Where  is  my  mother  ?    Seo  Sec.  115,  3. 
3* 


68  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  The  pronoun  il  is  used  as  tlie  subject  of  impersonal, 
intransitive,  and  reflexive  verbs,  and  is  then  really  of  the 
neuter  gender : 

II  est  midi,  il  pleut.     It  is  noon,  it  rains. 

II  me  semble,  il  est  viai.     It  seems  to  me,  it  is  true. 

II  sortait  una  fumee  noire.     There  arose  a  black  smoke. 

II  se  forme  des  heresies.    Heresies  are  forming. 

II  s'elevait  des  tourbillons.    There  arose  whirlwinds. 

II  y  a  un  an.    A  year  ago  (it  there  has  a  year). 

4.  The  pronoun  le  is  used  in  the  predicate,  referring  to 
a  clause,  a  phrase,  or  some  circumstance  mentioned  or 
implied,  where  the  English  uses  *so,'  'it,'  or  'that.'  In 
this  use  le  is  really  of  the  neuter  gender  : 

Etes-vous  maitresse  ici  ?    Axe  you  mistress  here  ? 
Otii,  je  le  suis.    Yes,  I  am  (am  so,  am  that). 
Madame,  ites-vous  malade  ?     Oui,  je  le  suis. 
Madam,  are  you  sick  ?    Yes,  I  am  (so,  it,  that). 

(Compare  the  two  following,  where  the  pronoun  refers  to  a  per- 
son :) 

Madame,  ^tes-vous  la  maitresse  ici  ?     Oui,  je  la  suis. 

Madam,  are  you  the  mistress  here  ?    Yes,  I  am  she. 

Etes-vous  la  malade  ?     Oui,  je  la  suis. 

Are  you  the  sick  person  ?    Yes,  I  am  she. 

Je  le  ferai  si  je  le  puis,  I  will  do  it  if  I  can. 

Vous  me  traitez  de  veuve ;  il  est  trop  vrai  que  je  le  suis 
(Voltaire).  You  treat  me  as  a  widow ;  it  is  too  true  that  I  am  so 
(one). 

5.  A  pronoun  is  regularly  repeated  with  each  verb  to 
which  it  stands  in  relation  : 

II  pleure,  il  rit,  il  chante.    He  weeps,  laughs,  sings. 
II  m'insulte,  m' outrage,  at  me  calomnie.    He  insults,  outrages, 
and  slanders  me. 

111.  Disjunctive  Forms. — The  disjunctive  is  the  stronger 
form  of  a  pronoun,  and  is  used  when  the  pronoun  stands 
alone,  and  when  it  stands  in  an  unusual  or  emphatic 
position  : 


USE   OF  THE   PEKS0:N"AL  PR02>rOUK.  59 

1.  The  disjunctive  form  of  the  pronoun  is  used,  when 
it  stands  alone,  used  absolutely  (without  direct  gram- 
matical relation,  or  with  ellipsis  of  its  verb),  either  in  the 
subject  or  predicate  nominative  : 

Moi,  regner !    I,  to  reign  !  (for  me  to  reign  !) 

Je  le  sais,  moi.     I  know  it,  I  (for  my  part). 

Qui  dit  ceia  ?     Moi,  lui,  eux,  nous,  vous. 

Who  says  that  ?    I,    he,  they,  we,     you. 

C'est  moi,  ce  sont  eux,  c'est  vous,  c'est  lui. 

It  is      I,     it  is  they,       it  is  you,     it  is  he. 

Travaillez  comme  lui.    Work  as  he  does  (like  him). 

II  est  plus  jeune  que  moi.    He  is  younger  than  I  (am). 

II  faut  toujoilrs  ^tre  soi.    One  ought  always  to  be  himself. 

Lui  et  moi,  nous  allons.    He  and  I,  we  will  go. 

2.  The  disjunctive  form  of  the  pronoun  is  used  when 
the  direct  object  is  placed  after  the  verb  : 

Rends-moi  chretienne  et  libre.    Make  me  a  Christian  and  free. 
Elle  n'a  que  lui.     She  has  only  him. 

La  fortune  nous  a  persecute,  lui  et  moi  (Fenelon).  Fortune  has 
persecuted  us,  both  him  and  me. 

Exception. — When  the  imperative  verb  is  followed  by  two  ob- 
ject pronouns,  the  direct  object  comes  first,  and  is  conjunctive  in 
form.     (Because  this  is  its  regular  position)  : 

Montrez-le-moi,  show  him  to  me. 
Donnez-le-lui,  give  it  to  him. 

3.  The  disjunctive  form  of  the  pronoun  is  used  after 
prepositions : 

Je  parle  de  toi,  de  lui,  d'eux,  de  vous. 

I  am  speaking  of  thee,  him,  them,  you. 

Penser  a  soi,  to  think  of  one's  self. 

Sans  moi,  without  me.     L'amour  de  soi,  self-love. 

Je  leur  parle,  or,  je  parle  a  eux,  a  elles.    I  speak  to  them. 

4.  The  disjunctive  form  of  the  pronoun  is  sometimes 
used  for  emphasis  : 


60  FEEKCH  GEAMMAE. 

JEJux  m'ont  releve.    They  picked  me  up. 
Eux  seuls  seront  exempts.     They  only  shall  be  exempt. 
Eux  dechirent  la  France,  et  lui  la  deshonore  (Ponsard).     They 
(it  is  who)  destroyed  France,  and  he  (it  is  who)  dishonors  her. 

SPECIAL    FORMS   AND    USAGES. 

112.  Vous  and  Tn. — Vous  is  used,  like  the  English  '  you,' 
in  addressing  a  single  person,  and  even  in  addresses  to 
the  Deity.  Tu  is  used  in  addressing  inferiors  or  intimate 
friends  ;  also  in  poetical  and  rhetorical  addresses  to  per- 
sonified objects  and  to  the  Deity  : 

Nature,  tu  ne  peux  pas  mentir. 
O  nature,  thou  canst  not  lie. 

113.  Sol  and  Lui. — The  reflexive  soi  is  used  when  the 
subject  to  which  it  refers  is  of  a  universal  or  unlimited 
character ;  especially  when  the  subject  is  wanting,  or  is 
an  indefinite  pronoun  : 

II  est  beau  de  triompher  de  soi  (Corneille). 

It  is  beautiful  to  conquer  one's  self. 

On  doit  parler  rarement  de  soi  (Academy). 

One  ought  to  speak  rarely  of  one's  self. 

La  nature  est  aimable  en  soi  (Academy). 

Nature  is  amiable  for  herself. 

Le  chat  ne  parait  sentir  que  pour  soi  (Academy). 

The  cat  seems  to  think  only  of  itself. 

Note. — When  the  subject  is  limited,  either  singular  or  plural,  lui, 
elle,  &c.,  are  used  : 

Perrin  tire  I'argent  a  lui  (La  Fontaine). 
Perrin  draws  the  money  to  himself. 
lis  ont  querelle  entre  eux  (Academy). 
They  have  a  quarrel  between  themselves. 

Exceptions  occur  on  both  sides  : 

Idomenee,  revenant  a  soi  (Fenelon).  Idomeneus,  coming  to  him- 
self. 

Les  choses  ne  sont  en  H^lles-m^mes  ni  pures,  ni  impures  (Mon- 
tesquieu).    Things  are  not  in  themselves  either  pure  or  impure. 


SPECIAL   FORMS   AKD   USAGES.  61 

114.  Se,  Leur,  &c. — General  Eemarks  : 

1.  Se  lias  often  a  reciprocal  force  : 

lis  s'aiment,  ils  se  flattent. 

They  love  each  other,  they  flatter  each  other. 

2.  Lui,  it  will  be  seen  in  the  table,  Sec.  107,  can  only 
be  feminine  in  the  conjunctive  form  ;  hence,  before  the 
verb,  lui  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine,  but  after 
the  verb  (except  an  imperative),  or  with  a  preposition,  it 
must  be  masculine  : 

Vous  lui  parlez,  vous  parlez  a  elle. 
You  are  speaking  to  her. 

3.  Leur,  it  will  be  seen  from  the  table,  Sec.  107,  is  never 
a  disjunctive  form  ;  hence  it  cannot  be  used  after  the  verb 
(except  the  imperative),  but  a  eux,  or  a  elles,  takes  its 

place  : 

Je  leur  parle,  or,  je  parle  a  eux,  or,  a  elles. 
But, — Donnez-le-leur,  give  it  to  them. 

Je  vous  parle,  et  aussi  a  eux  (not  leiu:). 
I  am  speaking  to  you  and  also  to  them. 

115.  Position  of  Personal  Pronouns. 

1.  The  pronouns  of  the  Subject  and  the  Object  gener- 
ally both  precede  the  verb,  in  the  following  order  :  1st,  the 
Subject  ;  2d,  the  Indirect  Object ;  3d,  the  Direct  Object, 
except  lui  and  leur,  which  always  follow  the  direct  object 

pronoun  : 

Je  te  le  donne,  je  le  lui  donne. 
I  give  it  to  thee,  I  give  it  to  him. 

2.  In  simple  interrogative  sentences  the  Subject  Pro- 
noun follows  the  verb,  becomes  an  enclitic,  and  is  joined 
to  the  verb  by  a  hyphen.  When  this  brings  two  vowel 
sounds  together,  a  t  is  inserted  to  obviate  the  hiatus  : 

Vient-elle  ?    Is  she  coming  ? 

Me  blame-t-il  ?    Does  he  blame  me  ? 


62  fkein'ch  geammae. 

Note. — This  order  is  sometimes  found  in  declaratory  sentences, 
especially  in  poetry : 

A  peine  avait-il  parle,  scarcely  had  he  spoken. 
Volontiers,  repondit-il.  Willingly,  he  replied. 
Dit-il,  says  he. 

3.  In  affirmative  commands  the  Object  Pronouns  follow 
the  verb,  1st,  the  direct,  and  2d,  the  indirect,  both  as  en- 
clitics : 

Donnez-le-moi.    Give  it  me. 
Parlez-leur.     Speak  to  them. 

4.  In  negative  commands  the  Object  Pronouns  precede 
the  verb,  1st,  the  indirect,  and  then  the  direct,  except  liii 
and  leur,  which  always  follow  the  direct  object : 

Ne  me  le  donnez  pas.    Do  not  give  it  to  me. 

Ne  les  leur  envoyez  pas.    Do  not  send  them  to  them. 

CASE    OF     PRONOUNS. 

116.  The  Use  of  the  Cases  of  Personal  Pronouns  has  al- 
ready for  the  most  part  been  described  in  giving  their 
forms.  See  also  Sec.  81,  on  the  case  of  nouns.  The  case 
of  the  Subject  (Nominative  case)  is  used  as  the  subject 
of  the  verb,  and  also  in  direct  address ;  the  case  of  the 
Direct  Object,  or  Objective  case  (Accusative),  is  used  as 
the  object  of  the  verb  and  after  prepositions, — in  each  in- 
stance with  a  distinction  between  Conjunctive  and  Dis- 
junctive forms,  fully  explained  above. 

The  case  of  the  Indirect  Object  (Dative  case)  is  used  as 
the  indirect  object  of  the  verb,  and  also  in  a  few  peculiar 
usages  which  require  special  notice. 

1.  The  pronoun  of  the  indirect  object  is  sometimes  best 
translated  by  a  possessive  : 

II  lui  serra  la  main.    He  pressed  his  hand  (to  him  the  hand). 

On  ne  lui  connait  que  deux  ennemis.  They  knew  only  two  ene- 
mies of  his  (only  two  enemies  to  him). 

On  lui  frappait  sur  I'epaule.  They  struck  him  on  his  shoulder 
(to  him  on  the  shoulder). 


POSSESSIVE   PRONOUiq-S. 


63 


2.  The  Indirect  Object  (Dative  case)  may  express  re- 
lations which  require  various  prepositions  in  English  : 

L'ambition  seul,  lui  inspira  des  crimes. 

Ambition  alone  inspired  crimes  in  him, 

Je  lui  ai  achete  une  volume  qu'il  m'a  fait  payer  cher. 

I  bought  from  him  a  volume  for  which  he  made  me  pay  dear. 

II  lui  a  demande  son  nom.     He  asked  of  him  his  name. 
Dites-lui,  done,  de  ne  jamais  ecrire. 

Say  to  him,  then,  never  to  write. 

3.  The  Indirect  Object  (Dative  case)  has  sometimes  a 
meaning  like  the  Latin  "ethical  dative"  : 

Imite-moi  les  anciens.    Imitate  the  ancients  (for  me). 
Glisse-moi  sur  la  superficie  (Voltaire).     Skim  over  the  surface. 
On  lui  lia  les  pieds,  on  vous  le  suspendit  (La  Fontaine).     They 
tied  his  feet,  they  hanged  him  (for  you). 


POSSESSIVE    PRONOUNS. 

117.  The  Conjunctive  Possessive  Pronoun,  or  Possessive 
Adjective,  mon,  fem.  ma,  from  the  Latin  mens,  is  declined 
and  used  as  follows  : 


1. 

Table  of  Possessive  Adjective. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Common. 

Meaning. 

my 

thy  'his,  her 

my 

thy 

his,  her 

our 

your 

their 

Sing.,  all  Cases, 
Plu.,  aU  Cases, 

mon 
mes 

ton 
tea 

sou 
ses 

ma 
mes 

ta 
tes 

sa 
ses 

notre    votre 
nos       vos 

leur 
leurs 

2.  The  Possessive  Adjective  agrees  in  gender  and  num- 
ber with   the   thing  possessed,  and   in  person  with  the 

possessor  : 

La  mere  et  son  fils  et  sa  fille, 

The  mother  and  her  son  and  her  daughter. 

3.  Before  a  vowel  sound  the  forms  mon,  ton,  and  son 
are  used  in  place  of  ma,  ta,  and  sa,  to  avoid  the  hiatus  : 

Son  ecole  (not  sa  ecole),  his  or  her  school. 
Mon  ame  (not  ma  ame),  my  soul. 


64 


FEEN'CH   GRAMMAR. 


4.  The  possessive  adjective  is  regularly  repeated  with 
each  noun : 

Mes  freres  et  mes  soeurs,  my  brothers  and  sisters. 

5.  Some  idioms  occur,  with  regard  to  the  use  of  the 
Possessive  Adjective  : 

a.  It  is  not  generally  applied  to  the  parts  of  the  body 

or  mind  : 

J'ai  mal  a  la  t^te.    I  have  a  pain  in  my  head. 
II  a  perdu  I'esprit.    He  has  lost  his  senses. 

b.  It  is  not  used  after  verbs  of  changing : 

II  a  change  de  religion.    He  has  changed  his  religion. 

Nous  avons  change  d'opinion.    We  have  changed  our  opinion. 

c.  Some  peculiar  phrases  : 

Donnez-moi  bientot  de  vos  nouvelles.     Let  me  hear  from  you 
soon  (give  me  soon  of  your  news). 
J'irai  a  votre  rencontre.  I  shall  go  to  meet  you  (to  your  meeting). 
Ce  sont  de  mes  cousins.    They  are  (some  of)  my  cousins. 
A  mon  egard,  notre  egard,  &c.,  in  regard  to  me,  you,  &c. 

118.  The  Disjunctive    (or  Substantive)    Possessive   Pro- 
noun, mien,  is  declined  and  used  as  follows  : 

1.  Table  of  Possessive  Pronouns. 
Masculine. 


Sing.,  all  Cases 

Plur.,  all  Cases 

mien,   mine, 
miens,  mine. 

tien,   thine. 
tiens,  thine. 

sien,   his  or  hers, 
siens,  his  or  hers. 

Feminine. 

Sing.,  all  Cases 

Plur.,  all  Cases 

mienne,   mine, 
miennes,  mine. 

tienne,  thine, 
tiennes,  thine. 

sienna,  hia  or  hers, 
siennas,  his  or  hers. 

Common. 

Sing.,  all  Cases 

Plur.,  all  Oases 

notre,  ours, 
notres,  ours. 

v6tre,  yours, 
votres,  yours. 

lenr,  theirs, 
leurs,  theirs. 

DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUKS. 


65 


Note  that  the  disjunctive  voire  is  distinguished  from  the  con- 
junctive votre,  by  the  circumflex. 

The  following  table  is  added  as  showing  the  English  meaning 
more  clearly : 

Another  Table  of  Possessive  Pronouns. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

1st  Per         

Sing. 

mien, 
tien, 
sien. 

Plur. 
miens, 
tiens, 
siens. 

Sing. 
mienne 
tienne, 
sienne. 

Plur. 
miennes,  mine. 

2d  Per 

tiennes,  thine. 

3d  Per 

siennes,  his,  hers,  its. 

1st,  2d,  and  3d  Per.,  notre,  n6tres,onr8 ;  votre,  votres,  yours ;  Ieiir,lenrs,  theirs. 

2.  The  Substantive  Possessive  Pronoun  agrees  in  gender 
and  number  with  a  noun  understood,  expressing  the  ob- 
ject possessed  and  not  the  possessor,  and  is  almost  always 
preceded  by  the,  definite  article,  le  mien,  les  leurs,  la  votre, 
&c.  : 

Avez-vous  ma  montre  ou  la  v6tre  ?    J'ai  la  mienne. 
Have  you  my  watch  or  yours  ?  I  have  my  own. 

Note. — The  definite  article  is  sometimes  omitted,  or  replaced  by 
the  indefinite  article  : 

Un  mien  frere  ;  une  mienne  cousine  (Academy). 
Un  mien  valet ;  un  sien  portrait  (Voltaire). 
Ta  Julie  sera  toujours  tienne. 
Thy  Julia  will  always  be  thine  (Rousseau). 


DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

119.  The  Conjunctive  (or  Adjective)  Demonstrative  Pro- 
noun, ce  (cet  before  a  vowel  sound),  is  from  the  Latin 
ecce  iste,  through  the  Old  French  icist,  cist,  &c. 


66 


FREN^CH    GRAMMAR. 


It  is  declined  and  used  as  follows  : 


1. 

The  Demonstrative  Ce. 

Masculine. 

Feminiiie. 

Sing.,  all  Cases 

Plur.,  all  Cases 

ce  (cet),  this, 
ces,  these. 

cette,  this, 
ces,  these. 

Note. — The  form  cet  is  used  before  a  vowel  sound,  to  avoid 
hiatus : 

Ce  monde,  ce  heros,  cet  arbre,  cet  homme-la,  this  world,  this 
hero,  this  tree,  that  man. 

2.  The  Adjective  Demonstrative  cemay  be  strengthened 
by  the  adverb  ci  (a  shorter  form  of  ici,  from  the  Latin 
ecce  hie),  or  by  the  adverb  la  (from  the  Latin  iliac),  joined 
with  a  hyphen,  as  an  enclitic,  to  the  noun  which  ce 
qualifies  : 

Get  homme-ci,    ce  gar9on-la,  this  man  (here),  that  boy  (there). 

3.  The  Adjective  Demonstrative  ce  has  a  limiting 
power,  similar  to  the  definite  article,  but»more  emphatic, 
and  agrees  with  its  noun  in  gender  and  number  : 

N'Stes  vous  plus  cet  Ulysse  qui,  &c.  Are  you  no  longer  the 
Ulysses  who  (the  same  who). 

Je  donne  ces  poires  a  cette  fille-ci.  I  am  giving  these  pears  to 
this  girl. 

Montrez-le-moi,  ce  mortel  privilegie.  Show  him  to  me,  this  pri 
vileged  mortal. 

120.  The  Disjunctive  (or  Substantive)  Demonstrative 
Pronoun,  celui,  is  from  the  Latin  ecce  ille,  through  the 
Old  French  icelui,  &c.  ;  it  is  declined  and  used  as  follows  : 

1.  The  Demonstrative  Celui. 


Sing.,all  cases.. 
Plur.,  all  cases.. 


Masculine. 


celui,  that. 
ceux,  those. 


Feminine. 


celle,  that, 
celles,  those. 


Mas.,  &c. 


celui-ci,  &c.,  this  one. 
ceux-ci,  Ac,  these. 


(Neuter.) 


ce    1 
ceci 
cela 
oa    J 

this, 
that. 

DEMOJ^-STRATIVE    PRONOUN'S.  67 

Note. — The  Neuter  ce  is  inserted  here  for  convenience.  See  next 
Section. 

2.  Celui  is  rendered  more  definite  by  the  adverb  ci,  or 
la,  joined  by  a  hyphen,  as  an  enclitic,  forming  celui-ci,  '  this 
one  (here)/  ceux-ci,  ^  these  (here)/  celui-la,  Hhat  one 
(there)/  ceux-la,  '  those  (there)/  with  the  feminine  forms, 
celle-ci,  &c.  These  forms  are  often  used  adversatively, 
but  may  be  used  singly  : 

Oeux-ci  n'ont  que  leur  foi  j  ceux-la  ont  leur  foi  et  leur  genie. 
The  former  have  only  their  faith  ;  the  latter  their  faith  and  their 
genius. 

O'est  celui-ci  qui  est  le  plus  fidele.  It  is  this  one  who  is  most 
faithful. 

3.  The  Substantive  Demonstrative,  celui,  celle,  ^  this ' 
or  'that,'  is  almost  always  followed  by  a  partitive  clause 
with  de,  or  a  relative  clause  with  que  or  its  equivalent ;  when 
it  refers  to  persons  it  may  usually  be  translated  by  the 
English  personal  pronoun  : 

Oes  livres  sont  ceux  que  je  pref  ere. 

These  books  are  the  ones  I  prefer. 

J'ai  ton  chapeau  et  celui  de  Guillaume. 

I  have  your  hat  and  that  of  William. 

Je  suis  celui  qui  suis.     I  am  the  one  who  is  (that  I  am). 

J'ai  joint  a  ma  lettre  celle  ecrite  par  le  prince. 

I  have  added  to  my  letter  the  one  written  by  the  prince. 

Dans  des  circonstances  comme  celles  actuelles  (Thiers.) 

In  circumstances  like  the  actual  ones. 

4.  The  Substantive  Demonstrative  celui  may  be  used 
absolutely,  that  is,  not  referring  to  any  expressed  noun, 
of  persons  only  :  , 

Heureux  celui  qui  craint  le  Seigneur  (Acad.). 
Happy  he  who  fears  the  Lord. 
Celle  qui  a  fait  cela,  a  bien  agi. 
She  who  has  done  that  has  done  well. 

La  voix  de  celle  que  I'on  aime,  the  voice  of  her  whom  one 
loves. 


68  FKEITCH   GRAMMAR. 

121.  The  Neuter  Ce.— The  neuter  pronoun  ce  is  of  dif- 
ferent origin  from  the  masculine  adjective  pronoun  ce, 
though  of  the  saine  form,  being  derived  from  the  Latin 
ecce  hoc.  It  elides  its  vowel  before  the  vowel  e,  as  in  c'est, 
c'6tait,  and  also  rarely  before  a  and  o,  as  in  c'a  6t6,  c'ont 
6t6  (Acad.).     It  is  used  as  follows  : 

1.  The  neuter  ce  is  Joined  to  the  adverb  ci  and  la,  with- 
out a  hyphen,  forming  the  pronouns  ceci  and  cela,  which 
may  be  used  either  adversatively  or  separately.  Cela  is 
often  shortened  in  colloquial  language  into  ca  : 

Ceci  est  sole,  cela  est  laine.    This  Is  silk,  that  is  wool. 
Oeci  n'est  pas  nn  jeu  d'enfans.     This  is  not  child's  play. 
Qu'est-ce  que  9a  ?     What's  that  ? 
Cela  me  plait  beaucoup.    That  pleases  me  much. 

Note. — Ceci  and  cela  are  not  used  of  persons  except  contemptu- 
ously : 

J*ai  vu  cela.    I  saw  that  fellow. 

2.  The  neuter  ce  takes  a  plural  verb  when  the  logical 
subject  is  plural : 

Ce  sent  nos  methodes,  &c. ,  it  is  our  methods,  &c. 
Ce  furent  les  Pheniciens,  it  was  the  Phenicians. 

3.  The  neuter  ce  is  chiefly  used  as  the  grammatical  sub- 
ject of  the  verb  '  to  be,'  the  logical  subject  being  expressed 
elsewhere  ;  in  questions,  coming  after  its  verb,  it  may  be 
followed  by  ci  or  la  without  the  hyphen  (not  enclitic)  : 

C'est  moi,  c'etait  lui.     It  is  I,  it  was  he. 
La  foi  c'est  I'heroisme.    Faith  Is  heroism. 
, Qu'est-ce  la  que  je  vois  ?    What  Is  that  which  I  see  ? 
Quelles  gens  sont-ce  la  ?    What  people  are  those  ? 

Note. — The  Academy,  however,  joins  ci  and  la  with  a  hyphen  in 
such  cases  :  Qu'est-ce-ci  ?     Qu'est-ce-la  ?  &c. 

4.  The  neuter  ce  may  be  followed  by  a  relative  clause  ; 
in  this  case  ce  qui  is  equivalent  to  the  English  'that 
which ' : 


liq^TEEEOGATIYE   PR0K0U2!fS.  69 

Oe  qui  m'etonne,  c'est  de  le  voir  ici. 

That  whicli  surprises  me  is  to  see  him  here. 

Je  seds  ce  que  vous  dtes,  et  ce  qu'ils  sont  (Acad.). 

I  know  what  you  are,  and  what  they  are. 

5.  The  neuter  ce  is  sometimes  used  without  any  relative 
clause,  and  in  the  objective  case,  especially  in  such  phrases 
as  sur  ce,  '  upon  that ; '  quant  a  ce,  '  as  to  that ; '  pour  ce, 
'as  for  that ;'  en  vertu  de  ce,  'in  virtue  of,'  &c. 

6.  When  c'est  is  followed  by  a  relative  clause,  the  verb 
'  to  be '  is  sometimes  omitted  from  the  latter  : 

C'est  une  charmante  chose,  qu'une  femme  (est).  It  is  a  charm- 
ing thing  which  a  woman  is  (a  woman  is  a  charming  thing). 

O'est  beaucoup  que  de  savoir  commander  (est).  It  is  a  great 
thing  which  to  know  how  to  command  is  (to  know  how  to  com- 
mand). 

Note. — From  this  arise  elliptical  expressions  without  the  use  of 
ce : 

Ij'aimable  enfant  que  celui-la  (est). 

The  amiable  child  that  this  one  is  (what  an  amiable). 

This  is  frequent  in  questions  : 

Qu'est-ce  que  ceci  (est)  ?    What  is  this  ? 

7.  C'est  is  sometimes  used  with  de,  like  the  Latin  sum 
with  the  genitive ;  and  with  k,  similarly,  to  signify  pos- 
session : 

O'est  d'un  orateur,  it  is  the  part  of  an  orator, 
O'est  a  vous  a  parler,  it  is  your  turn  to  speak. 
O'est  a  moi,  it  is  my  property. 


INTERROGATIVE     PRONOUNS. 

122.  The  Conjunctive  (or  Adjective)  Interrogative  Pro- 
noun quel,  is  derived  from  the  Latin  qualis,  and  is  de- 
clined and  used  as  follows  : 


70  FREi^CH   GRAMMAR. 

1.  The  Interrogative  Quel. 


Sing.,  all  Cases 

Plural,  all  Cases. . . 


Masculine. 


quel,  what,  which  ? 
quels,  what,  which  1 


Feminine. 


quelle,  what,  which? 
quelles,  what,  which? 


2.  The  interrogative  quel  is  generally  used  adjectively, 
agreeing  with  its  noun  in  gender  and  number: 

Quel  heure  est-il  ?  quel  temps  fait-il  ? 
What  time  is  it  ?  what  is  the  weather  ? 
Also  in  exclamations  : 
Quel  air !  quelle  disgrace !     What  an  air  1  what  a  disgrace  ! 

3.  The  interrogative  quel  is  often  separated  from  its 
noun,  and  used  as  subject  of  the  verb  : 

Quelle  est  votre  intention  ?    What  is  your  intention  ? 
Quel  est  son  age  ?     What  is  his  (or  her)  age  ? 
Note. — Quel  is  sometimes  used  for  the  disjunctive  pronoun  lequel, 
for  which  use  see  Sec.  124,  3. 

123,  The  Disjunctive  (or  Substantive)  Interrogative  Pro- 
noun, qui,  derived  from  the  Latin  quis,  is  declined  and 
used  as  follows  : 

1.  The  interrogative  qui,  '  who,'  has  the  same  form  in 
the  feminine  and  in  the  plural,  but  has  also  two  neuter 
forms,  que,  quoi,  'what.' 

2.  The  'interrogative  qui  is  used  only  of  persons  or  per- 
sonifications, and  nearly  always  in  the  singular  number  : 

A  qui  pensez-vouz  parler  ?    To  whom  do  you  think  of  speaking  ? 
Qui  sont  ces  gens  en  robe  ?     Who  are  those  in  robes  ? 
Qui  demandez-vous  ?    Whom  do  you  ask  for  ? 

3.  The  interrogative  qui  is  sometimes  used  indefinitely 
for  '  some — others,'  &c. : 

Nos  gens  s'en  vont,  qui  de9a,  qui  dela. 

Our  people  are  going  away,  some  here,  some  there. 


li^TTEEEOGATIVE   PKOKOUK-S.  71 

4.  The  neuter  interrogative,  que,  'what/  is  chiefly  used 
with  the  verb  'to  be/  is  never  governed  by  a  preposition, 
and  elides  its  final  letter  before  a  vowel  (which  qui  never 
does)  : 

Qu'est-ce  que  j'entends  ?    What  do  I  hear  ? 
Qu'attendez-vous  ?    What  are  you  waiting  for  1 

5.  The  neuter  interrogative,  quoi,  '  what/  is  used  after 
prepositions,  in  exclamations,  or  when,  as  object  of  the 
verb,  it  is  placed  immediately  after  the  verb  : 

De  quoi  parle-t-on  ?    Of  what  are  they  talking  ? 
Quoi,  vous  etes  maries  !     What !  you  married  ! 
Je  ne  sais  quoi.     I  don't  know  what. 
A  quoi  pensez-vous  ?     What  are  you  thinking  of  ? 

Note. — Que  is  used,  however,  in  some  exclamations  to 
express  quantity  or  quality,  like  the  English  *  how  ; '  and 
also  to  express  cause  or  reason,  in  place  of  a  quoi,  de  quoi : 

Que  Dieu  est  pmssant !    How  powerful  God  is  1 
Qu'il  fait  beau  temps !     What  fine  weather  ! 
Que  sert  la  vigilance  ?    Of  what  use  is  vigilance  ? 

124.  The  Interrogative  Lequel,  'which,'  is  formed  by 
prefixing  the  definite  article  to  the  interrogative  quel, 
both  parts  being  declined,  making  the  forms — lequel,  la- 
quelle,  lesquels,  lesquelles.  It  is  further  combined  with  the 
prepositions  de  and  a,  giving  the  forms  duquel,  d«quels, 
auquel,  auxquels,  auxquelles.     Its  use  is  as  follows  : 

1.  The  interrogative  lequel,  ^ which  one,'  is  used  sub- 
stantively, of  persons  as  well  as  things,  and  referring  to 
some  noun  expressed,  with  which  it  agrees  in  number  and' 
gender : 

Lequel  de  ces  chapeaux  voulez-vous  ? 

Which  of  these  hats  do  you  wish  ? 

Voici  deux  routes ;  laquelle  prendrez-vous  ? 

Here  are  two  roads  ;  wMch  one  will  you  take  ? 

Auquel  de  ces  messieurs  desirez-vous  parler  ? 

To  which  of  these  gentlemen  do  you  wish  to  speak  ? 


72  FEElfCH   GEAMMAK. 

2.  The  interrogative  lequel  may  refer  to  an  infinitive  or 
a  clause,  in  which  case  it  is-  really  neuter  : 

Lequel  vaut  mieux,  de  cultiver  un  art  funeste  ou  de  le  rendre 
utile  ?  (Rousseau).  WMcli  is  wortli  the  most,  to-cultivate  an  injuri- 
ous art,  or  to  make  it  useful  ? 

3.  The  interrogative  lequel  is  sometimes  displaced  by 
quel: 

Quel  est  celui  de  nos  deux  qui  r^ve  ?    (V.  Hugo.) 
Which  one  of  us  two  is  it  that  is  dreaming  ? 

125.  Interrogative  Phrases. — Some  peculiar  forms  of 
questions  may  need  explanation  : — 

1.  Questions  often  contain  a  relative  clause  in  which 
the  verb  est  is  omitted,  as  explained  in  Sec.  121,  6: 

Qu'est-ce  que  c'est  que  9a  (est)  ?    What's  that  ? 
(What  is  it  that  it  is  that  that  [is]  ?) 
Qu'est-ce  que  la  vie  ?    What  is  life  ? 

2.  Other  pleonastic  forms  : 

Qu'est-ce  qui  vous  fait  mal  ?    What  hurts  you  ? 
Qui  est-ce  qui  vous  fait  mal  ?    Who  hurts  you  ? 
Qui  est-ce  que  vous  demandez  ?    Whom  do  you  want  ? 
N'est-ce  pas  q*e  nous  irons  ?    Shall  we  not  go  ? 

3.  An  answer  to  a  question  must  be  either  oui,  'yes,' 
non,  'no,'  or  an  exclamation,  or  a  complete  sentence. 
Such  answers  as  '  I  will,'  'I  do,'  &c.,  are  inadmissible  : 

Est-ce  Jean  ?    Oui,  or,  oul,  c'est  lui.    Is  that  John?    Yes,  it  is. 

Sont-ce  vos  freres  ?     Oui,  ce  sont  eux. 

Are  those  your  brothers  ?    Yes,  it  is. 

Est-ce  votre  desir  ?     Oui,  ce  I'est.     Is  it  your  desire  ?    Yes. 

Sont-ce  vos  habits  ?     Oe  ne  les  sont  pas. 

Are  they  your  clothes  ?    They  are  not. 

Elle  chante  bien,  n'est-ce  pas  ?     She  sings  well,  don't  she  ? 

4.  Antithetical  questions  are  as  follows  : 

Qui  de  vous  ou  de  moi  ?    Which  of  us,  you  or  I  ? 
Qui  est  le  plus  haut  de  toi  ou  d'Emile  ? 
Which  is  the  taller,  you  or  Emile  ? 


KELATIVE   PROKOUKS.  73 

RELATIVE     PRONOUNS. 

126.  Adjective  and  Substantive  Relatives. — Relative  pro- 
nouns, like  the  other  sorts  of  pronouns,  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes.  The  adjective,  or  ordinary,  relatives 
are  qui  and  lequel.  The  only  substantive  relative  is  qui. 
They  are  declined  like  the  corresponding  interrogative 
pronouns,  and  are  used  as  follows  : — 

127.  The  Ordinary  Relative  Qui,  'who/  'which,'  'that/ 
refers  to  both  persons  and  things,  and  takes  the  form  que 
when  used  as  the  direct  object  (accusative  case)  : 

Le  chapeau  que  j'ai  achete,  the  hat  which  I  bought. 

1.  After  prepositions  qui  is  used  referring  to  persons, 
and  usually  lequel,  sometimes  quoi,  and  sometimes  qui,  re- 
ferring to  things  : 

O'est  vous,  digne  Fran9ais,  a  qui  je  viens  parler. 

It  is  you,  worthy  Frenchman,  to  whom  I  come  to  speak. 

La  gloire,  a  laquelle  les  heros  sacrifient. 

The  glory  to  which  heroes  sacrifice. 

Oe  sent  choses  a  quoi  vous  ne  prenez  pas  garde  (Academy). 

These  are  things  of  which  you  do  not  take  care. 

La  main  par  qui  Dieu  m'a  frappe  (Voltaire). 

The  hand  with  which  God  struck  me  down. 

Deux  pivots  sur  qui  roule  notre  vie  (La  Fontaine). 

Two  pivots  upon  which  our  Ufe  revolves. 

2.  Relative  clauses  with  qui  are  often  used  where  the 
English  has  a  participial  adjective  : 

L'homme  qui  rit,  the  laughing  man. 
L'enfant  qui  pleure,  the  crying  child. 

3.  The  form  que  occurs  as  the  subject  (nominative  case), 
only  when  used  predicatively  ;  it  is  then  really  neuter  : 

Je  sais  ce  que  vous  ^tes  et  ce  qu'ils  sont  (Academy). 
I  know  what  you  are  and  what  they  are. 
Voila  ce  que  c'est,  behold  what  it  is. 

4.  The  demonstratives  celui  and  ce  are  never  followed 
by  lequel,  always  by  qui  : 

4 


74  FREN'Cn   GRAMMAR. 

Oe  que  j'ai  promis,  that  wliich  I  have  promised. 
Ce  qui  est  beau,  that  which  is  beautiful. 

128.  The  Relative  Lequel,  'which/  Svho/  'that/  is 
used  for  emphasis  (being  the  longer  form),  or  for  greater 
definiteness,  or  to  avoid  ambiguity,  and  especially  with 
prepositions,  and  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gender  and 
number : 

Son  anneau,  lequel  il  tenait  fort  cher,  his  ring,  which  he  held 
very  dear. 

La  sceur  de  mon  pere,  laquelle  demeure  a  Paris,  my  father's 
sister,  who  lives  at  Paris. 

Un  homme  s'est  leve  au  milieu  de  I'assemblee,  lequel  a  parle 
d'un  maniere  extravagant.  A  man  arose  in  the  midst  of  the  assem- 
bly, who  (the  man,  not  the  assembly)  spoke  in  an  extravagant  man- 
ner. 

Le  chien  auquel,  le  canne  avec  laquelle,  the  dog  to  which,  the 
cane  with  which. 

129.  The  Substantive  Relative  is  tlie  Relative  without 
antecedent,  or  containing  the  antecedent  within  itself, 
like  the  English  '  whoever,'  or  '  what ; '  it  refers  both  to 
persons  and  things  : — 

1.  The  Substantive  Relative  Pronoun  referring  to  per- 
sons is  qui  in  all  cases  : 

Qui  casse  les  verres,  les  pale.  Whoever  breaks  the  glasses  pays 
for  them. 

Sauve  qui  peut.    Save  whoever  can. 

Vous  trouverez  a  qui  parler.    You  will  find  some  one  to  speak  to. 

2.  The  Substantive  Relative  referring  to  things  is  qui 
in  the  nominative,  and  quoi  in  the  direct  object  (accusa- 
tive), or  after  prepositions  : 

Voila  qui  est  beau,  behold  what  is  fine  (how  fine  this  is). 
Nous  avons  de  quoi  vivre.     We  have  something  to  live  upon. 
C'est  ce  a  quoi  je  ne  pensais  pas.     It  is  what  (something  which) 
I  was  not  expecting. 
Je  ne  sais  quoi  dire.    I  don't  know  what  to  say. 


ADVERBS   USED   AS   PROI^OUKS.  75 

ADVERBS  USED  AS  PRONOUNS. 

130.  The  Eelative  Dont.— The  Adverb  dont,  from  the 
Latin  de  unde,  has  lost  all  it5 adverbial  power,  and  is  nsed 

>  only  in  place  of  the  relative  pronoun  with  the  preposition 
ij^  de,  duquel,  -duquels,  &c.  (genitive  case),  like  the  English 
'  whereof/  *  whence/  &c. : 

Le  Fran9ais  dont  le  frere  est  mort,  the  Frenchman  whose  brother 
is  dead. 

L'esprit  retoume  au  ciel,  dont  il  est  desoendu  (Racine).  The 
soul  returns  to  heaven,  whence  it  descended. 

Voila  ce  dont  11  s'aglt.    This  is  what  is  in  question. 

Note. — Dont  must  follow  its  antecedent  immediately.  If  any  lim- 
itation of  the  antecedent  prevents  this,  duquel,  &c.,  is  used  : 

L'ami  a  la  probite  duquel  je  me  suis  fie,  the  friend  in  whose  hon- 
esty I  have  confided. 

131.  The  Relative  Ou.— The  adverb  ou,  'where/  from 
the  Latin  ubi,  often  takes  the  place  of  the  relative  pro- 
noun with  the  preposition  a, — auc^uel,  auxquels  (dative 
case),  like  the  English  *  wherennto/  *  wherein/  &c.: 

Le  bonheur  ou  j'aspire,  the  happiness  to  which  I  aspire. 

La  misere  ou  ils  sont,  the  misery  in  which  they  are. 

C'est  un  mal  ou  mes  amis  ne  peuvent  porter  de  remede  (Mon- 
tesquieu).    It  is  an  evil  to  which  my  friends  can  bring  no  remedy. 

Note. — D'ou  and  par  ou  are  occasionally  found,  replacing  de 
quoi,  par  lequel,  &c. : 

Un  proces  d'ou  depend  ma  fortune,  a  suit  on  which  my  fortune 
depends. 

Les  points  par  ou  (Rousseau).  D'ouvient  que  vous  faites  cela  ? 
(Academy). 

132.  The  Pronoun  En. — The  Adverb  en,  from  the  Latin 
inde,  is  only  used  as  a  pronoun,  and  is  usually  considered 
as  such.  It  is  used  in  the  place  of  a  demonstrative  or  per- 
sonal pronoun  accompanied  by  the  preposition  de  (genitive 
case),  and  may  refer  to  persons  as  well  as  things  : 

1.  The  pronoun  en  often  takes  the  place  of  an  ordinary 
possessive  case : 

Quand  on  est  daus  un  pays,  il  faut  en  suivre  I'usage. 

When  one  is  in  a  country,  it  is  necessary  to  follow  its  customs. 


70  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

Note. — A  ]oossessive  pronoun  may  be  used  in  this  case  : 
La  patience  est  amere,  mais  son  fruit  est  doux  (Rousseau).     Pa- 
tience is  bitter,  but  its  friiit  is  sweet. 

2.  The  pronoun  en  often  takes  tlie  place  of  a  partitive 
expression,  and  has  the  force  of  *  some'  or  'any/  &c. : 

A-t-il  des  proteoteurs  ?     II  en  a  de  tres  puissants.     Has  lie  any 
protectors  ?    He  has  some  very  powerful  ones. 
Donnez-lui  en.     Give  him  some. 

3.  The  pronoun  (or  adverb)  en  may  take  the  place  of 
a  possessive  pronoun,  in  which  case  the  article  is  sup- 
plied : 

Sentir  sa  fatigue,  or  en  sentir  la  fatigue,  to  feel  the  fatigue  of  it. 
II  en  sait,  il  en  voit,  la  haine  opiniatre. 
He  knows,  he  sees,  his  stubborn  hate. 

Remark. — En  replaces  a  pronoun  with  de,  without  regard  to  what 
preposition  (or  if  none)  is  required  in  English  : 

Je  vous  en  remercie.     I  thank  you  for  it. 
II  faut  en  profiter.     We  must  profit  by  it. 

4.  The  pronoun  en  is  sometimes  used  in  pleonastic  ex- 
pressions, where  it  is  really  redundant : 

De  ces  trois  unites,  il  n'y  en  a  q'une  d'importante  (De  Stafil). 
Of  these  three  unities  there  is  only  one  (of  them)  important. 
En  est-il  un  seul  parmi  vous  qui  consentit  ?  (Acad.). 
Is  there  a  single  one  (of  you)  among  you  who  would  consent  ? 

5.  The  pronoun  en  is  used  in  some  expressions  in  which 
it  retains  an  adverbial  force,  in  part  or  entirely  : 

S'en  aller,  to  go  away  (take  one's  self  from  it). 

S'en  venir,  to  come  away  (to  bring  one's  self  from  it). 

O'en  est  fait,  it  is  all  over  (it  is  done  of  it),  &c.,  &c. 

133.  The  Pronoun  Y. — The  adverb  y,  from  the  Latin 
ibi,  is  used  and  usually  considered  as  a  pronoun,  but  gen- 
erally retains  some  reference  to  place.  It  is  used  in  place 
of  a  demonstrative  or  personal  pronoun  accompanied  by 
the  preposition  a  (dative  case),  and  means  'to  it,'  *  at  it,' 
'  into  it,'  *  there,'  &c.: 


IKDEFIl^ITE   PEOis'OUKS.  77 

Si  vous  allez  au  theatre,  je  veux  y  aller. 
If  you  go  to  the  theatre,  I  wish  to  go  there  (to  it). 
O'est  un  homme  equivoque,  ne  vous  y  fiez  pas  (Acad.). 
He  is  a  deceitful  man,  do  not  trust  him  (to  him). 

1.  The  pronoun  y  replaces  a  pronoun  used  with  the 
preposition  a  without  regard  to  what  preposition  (or  if 
none)  is  used  in  English  : 

Pensez-vous  a  moi?  Oui,  j'y  pense.  Are  you  thinking  about 
me  ?    Yes,  I  am  thinking  of  you. 

Si  je  promets,  comptez-y.     If  I  promise,  depend  upon  it. 

2.  When  y  and  en  come  together,  y  precedes  : 

Je  vous  y  en  porterai.    I  will  bring  you  some  of  it  there. 

3.  Y  is  used  in  some  expressions  in  which  it  retains  the 
force  of  an  adverb  : 

II  y  a,  there  is  (it  has  there,  has  in  it).  . 
n  y  va  de,  it  is  at  stake  (it  tends  thither,  goes  there,  of). 
II  y  va  de,ima  gloire ;  il  faut  que  je  me  venge.     It  concerns  my 
glory  (it  is  at  stake) ;  I  must  be  revenged. 

4.  The  adverb  y  is  sometimes  used  where  better  usage 
places  la : 

Oonduisez-y-moi,  or,  conduisez  moi  la,  lead  me  thither. 

Je  vous  y  en  porterai,  or,  Je  vous  en  porterai  la.  I  will  take, 
you  some  there. 

Apporte-s-y  quelque-chose,  or,  apporte  quelque-chose  la. 
Bring  something  there. 

Note. — S  is  rarely  inserted  in  such  cases,  to  avoid  the  hiatus. 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 

134.  A  small  number  of  Pronouns  are  called  Indefinite, 
because  used  in  an  unlimited  way,  without  referring  to 
any  particular  word,  like  the  English  '  none,'  '  some,' 
'ail,'  'each,'  &c. 

Their  use  is  in  general  the  same  as  in  English.  A  few 
require  more  special  attention. 


78  FREN"CH    GRAMMAR. 

135.  The  Pronoun  On  is  derived  from  the  Latin  ^homo ;' 
it  means  ^  one/  ^people,'  Hhey/  &c.;  it  refers  only  to  per- 
sons ;  it  is  always  the  subject  of  the  verb,  and  is  always 
singular  : 

Ici  on  parle  Frangais.    Here  they  speak  French. 
A-t-on  regu  des  lettres  ?    Have  letters  been  received  ? 
Quand  on  est  chretien,  when  one  is  a  Christian. 

1.  On  is  preceded  by  1'  after  a  vowel,  or  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence  : 

Si  I'on  arrache  l6r  jambe  d'unf  mouche,  if  one  tears  off  the  leg  of 
afly.        " 

L'on  hait  avec  exces  lorsque  I'on  hait  un  frere  (Racine).  One 
hates  with  excess  when  one  hates  a  brother. 

Note. — This  1'  was  originally  the  definite  article,  but  has  lost  all 
force  except  as  a  euphonic  letter. 

Exception. — L'  is  not  inserted  when  the  next  word  begins  with 
1,  to  avoid  the  alliteration  : 

Si  on  le  voit  (not  si  l'on  le  volt),  if  it  is  seen. 

2.  The  verb  after  on  may  take  a  predicate  noun  in  the 
plural : 

Quand  on  est  jolies,  mesdames,  comme  vous,  when  people  are 
pretty,  like  you,  ladies. 

3.  On  is  sometimes  used  for  '  I '  or  *  we '  : 

On  vous  I'a  repute  cent  fois. 

I  have  repeated  it  to  you  a  hundred  times. 

136.  The  Pronoun  Personne  is  from  the  Latin  persona ; 
it  means  '  anybody,'  or,  with  ellipsis  of  the  negative,  *  no- 
body ; '  and  is  chiefly  used  in  negative  or  interrogative 
sentences.     (Personnels  also  a  noun,  meaning  *  person.') 

1.  Personne  with  a  negative  maybe  translated  by  Mio- 

body': 

Personne  n'est  plus  jolie.    Nobody  is  prettier. 
Je  ne   connais   personne    d'aussi   heureux    que  cette  femme 
(Acad.).     I  know  nobody  so  happy  as  that  woman. 


IKDEFIN"ITE   PRONOUi^S.  79 

2.  Personne  without  a  negative  means  '  anybody': 

Si  jamais  personne  est  assez  hardi  pour  I'entre-prendre,  il  re- 
iissira  (Acad.).  If  ever  anybody  is  bold  enough  to  undertake  it,  he 
will  succeed. 

Je  doute  que  personne  ait  mieux  peint  la  nature. 

I  doubt  wbetber  any  one  has  painted  nature  better. 
Personne  a-t-il  jamais  ?  has  anybody  ever  1 

3.  Personne,  in  the  answer  to  a  question,  means  'no- 
body,' the  negative  and  the  verb  being  understood : 

Y  a-t-il  quelqu'un  ici  ?    Personne. 
Is  tbere  anybody  here  ?    Nobody. 

137.  The  Pronoun  Rien  is  derived  from  the  Latin  rem ; 
it  means  *  anything/  and  is  chiefly  used  in  negative  sen- 
tences. 

1.  Rien  with  a  negative  may  be  translated  '  nothing ' : 

Je  ne  dis  rien.     I  say  nothing. 

II  vaut  mieux  ne  rien  faire  que  de  faire  des  riens.  It  is  better  to 
do  nothing  tlian  to  do  nothings  (trifles.) 

2.  Rien  without  a  negative  means  '  anything ' : 

Qui  VOU3  reproche  rien  ?    Who  reproaches  you  with  anything  ? 
Y  a-t-il  rien  de  si  beau  ?    Is  there  anything  so  fine  ? 

3.  Rien  is  sometimes,  with  an  ellipsis  of  the  negative, 
equivalent  to  '  nothing  '  : 

Dieu  a  cree  le  monde  de  rien. 

God  created  the  world  out  of  nothing. 

Qu'avez-vous  ?     Rien. 

What's  the  matter  with  you  ?    Nothing. 

138.  The  Pronoun  Aucim  is  used  both  adjectively  and 
substantively  ;  it  has  a  feminine  form,  aucune,  and  plural 
forms,  aucuns  and  aucunes ;  it  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
aliqui  unus  ;  it  means  'any  one,'  'some,'  and,  with  the 
negative,  'none,'  '  no  one  '  : 

1.  Aucun  used  substantively  : 

Auoun  n'est  prophete  chez  soi.    No  one  is  a  prophet  at  home. 
On  doit  ne  se  rendre  suspect  a  aucun.     One  ought  riot  to  make 
himself  suspected  by  any  one. 


80  FEENCH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Aucun  used  adjectively: 

On  ne  garda  plus  aucunes  mesures.  They  no  longer  kept  any  bounds. 
Quiconque  cherche  la  verite,  ne  doit  etre  d'aucun  pays  (Vol- 
taire).    Whoever  seeks  for  the  truth,  should  he  of  no  country. 

139.  The  Pronoun  Tout,  from  the  Latin  totus,  is  also  de- 
clined— fern,  toute,  plural  tons,  toutes  ;  it  is  used  both  sub- 
stantively and  adjectively,  and  means 'all/  'every,' 'the 
whole,'  '  entirely,'  &c. 

1.  Tout,  in  the  sense  of  '  all,'  denoting  quantity,  or  *  the 
whole,'  may  be  used  either  attributively  or  predicatively: 

Attributively  :  A  toute  force,  Tnth  his  whole  force. 

Tout^sa  famille,  his  whole  family. 

Tout  le  peuple,  the  whole  people. 

Pendant  tout  ce  temps,  during  that  whole  time. 

Predicatively  :  Elles  furent  toutes  surprises  de  le  voir.  They 
were  entirely  surprised  to  see  him. 

Laissez-moi  toute  a  mon  desespoir.  Leave  me  entirely  to  my 
despair. 

2.  Tout,  in  the  sense  of  'all,'  referring  to  number,  may 
be  used  either  substantively  or  adjectively  : 

Substantively :  La  mort  nous  separe  de  tout  (Bossuet).  Death 
separates  us  from  all  things. 

Se  devouer  pour  le  salut  de  tous  (Acad.).  To  devote  one's  self 
for  the  salvation  of  all. 

Tout  ce  qui  nous  fait  sentir  notre  meprise,  everything  which 
makes  us  feel  our  error. 

Adjectively  :  Tous  les  regards  et  tous  las  coeurs,  all  looks  (eyes) 
and  all  hearts. 

Tous  les  jours,  every  day.  Tous  deux,  both  (all  two).  Tous  les 
deux,  both. 

3.  Tout,  in  the  sense  of  '  every,'  is  usually  singular,  and 
agrees  in  gender  with  its  noun  : 

Tout  homme  est  sujet  a  la  mort.    Every  man  is  subject  to  death. 

En  toute  occasion,  on  every  occasion. 

A  toute  heure,  at  all  hours. 

X  tous  moments  (Moliere),  every  moment. 

De  tous  cotes  (Boileau),  on  every  side. 


IITDEFINITE   PE0N0U2TS.  81 

140.  The  Pronoun  Tel,  from  the  Latin  talis,  lias  a  femi- 
nine, telle,  and  a  plural,  tels,  telles ;  it  means  'such,'  and  is 
used  as  follows  : 

1.  Tel  may  agree  with  a  noun,  to  denote  either  kind  or 
degree,  in  a  demonstrative  way  : 

li  tifent  a  peu  pres  tel  discours.  He  held  very  nearly  such  lan- 
guage (as  tlie  following). 

Une  telle  conduite  vous  fait  honneur  (Acad.).  Such  conduct 
(as  that  described)  does  you  honor. 

II  est  tel  que  son  pere.    He  is  just  like  his  father. 

Note  1. — Tel — tel  may  be  used  as  correlatives,  like  the  Latin 
talis — qualis  : 

Tel  maitre,  tel  valet,  as  the  master,  so  the  servant. 
Telle  vie,  telle  fin,  as  tbe  life  is,  so  its  end  will  be. 
Note  2. — The  phrase  tel  quel  is  in  colloquial  use,  meaning  *  just 
as  it  was,'  &c.  : 

Je  vous  rends  votre  argent  tell6  quelle. 
I  return  your  money  intact  (all  right). 

Note  3. — Tel  sometimes  means  '  such  and  such,'  or  *  so  and  so,' 
or  *  such  a  one,'  &c.  : 

Dans  telle  ville,  in  a  certain  city. 

A  telle  epoque,  at  such  a  time. 

Avoir  telle  ou  telle  qualite,  to  have  such  or  such  a  quality. 

2.  Tel  may  be  used,  either  adjectively  or  substantively, 
referring  to  indefinite  individuals  : 

Tel  homme  recherche  ce  que  tel  autre  meprise  (Acad.). 
One  man  seeks  what  another  scorns. 
Tel  qui  rit  vendredi,  dimanche  pleura  (Racine). 
Who  laughs  Friday  will  weep  Sunday. 

141.  The  Pronoun  Meme  is  from  the  Latin  semet  ipsis- 
simus  (through  met  ipsimus  and  the  Old  French  meisme 
mesme),  and  has  a  plural,  memes.  It  means  *seltV  'same,' 
&c.,  and  is  used  as  follows  : 

1.  Meme  is  joined  as  an  enclitic  with  the  hyphen  to  the 
disjunctive    personal  pronouns,   forming  moi-meme,   toi- 
4* 


82  FREKCH   GRAMMAR. 

meme,  &c.     (See  Sec.  108.)     In  a  similar  way  it  is  added  to 
abstract  nouns,  making  a  kind  of  personification  : 

Get  homme  est  la  valeur  m^me. 
Tliat  man  is  valor  itself. 

Note. — Meme  may  agree  with  a  noun,  and  have  the  meaning  of 
*  very '  or  '  even,'  &c. : 

Les  rochers  m^mes,  the  very  rocks. 
Les  dieux  memes,  the  gods  themselves. 

In  this  sense  it  is  sometimes  used  adverbially  : 
Les  dieux  mSme,  even  the  gods. 

2.  Meme  with  the  definite  article  means  *tlie  same  ': 

O'est  le  m^me  homme. 

It  is  the  same  man. 

Cette  femme  est  toujours  la  m^me. 

That  woman  is  always  the  same. 

Note. — Sometimes  it  has  the  same  force  without  the  article  : 
Void  les  freres  Martin :  meme  taille,  m^me  figure,  m^me  habi- 

tudes  de  corps.    See  the  Martin  brothers  :  the  same  height,  same 

face,  same  motions. 

142.  The  Pronoun  Nul,  from  the  Latin  nullus,  has  a 
feminine  form,  nuUe,  and  a  plural  nnls,  nulles.  It  is  used 
both  substantively  and  adjectively,  and  means  '  none,'  *no 
one ': 

1.  Nul  used  substantively  is  almost  always  found  in 
the  masculine  singular,  and  is  followed  by  the  negative 
ne: 

Nul  n'est  exempt  de  mourir. 

None  is  exempt  from  death. 

A  nul  I'ambition  n'est,  je  crois,  etrangere. 

To  none  is  ambition,  I  suppose,  a  stranger. 

This  double  negative,  nul  ne,  it  will  be  seen,  is  equivalent  to  a 
simple  negative. 

Note. — The  plural  is  sometimes  used  in  this  way  : 

Nulles  des  expressions  (Rousseau),  none  of  the  expressions. 


IN-DEFINITE   PRONOUNS.  83 

2.  Nul  may  be  used  adjectively,  agreeing  with  its  noun: 
Nulle  paix  pour  I'impie  (Racine). 
No  peace  for  tlie  wicked. 

Nuls  malheurs  doivent  abattre  I'homme  (Mirabeau). 
No  misfortunes  ought  to  overcome  man. 

143.  The  Pronoun  Autre,  from  the  Latin  alter,  is  of 
common  gender,  and  has  a  plural,  autres ;  it  means 
'other,'  *  different': 

1.  Autre  has  very  often  the  definite  article,  and  then  has 
often  I'un  for  a  correlative  : 

li'un  et  I'autre  consul,  both  consuls. 

lis  se  dechirent  les  uns  les  autres  (Fenelon).  They  tore  one  an- 
other (more  than  one  on  each  side). 

Les  uns  par  curiositfe,  les  autres  par  consideration,  some  through 
curiosity,  some  through  sympathy. 

Note. — Autre  may  also  have  the  indefinite  article,  in  the  sense  of 
*  an  other  of  two ' : 

Un  autre  Alexandre,  another  Alexander. 

Un  autre  moi-meme,  or,  une  autre  moi-m.6me,  &c.,  an  other  self 
(alter  ego),  &c. 

2.  Autre  is  often  used,  generally,  without  the  definite 
article,  in  the  sense  of  'a  different  one,'  Latin  alius  : 

Quelque  autre  vous  lo  dira  mieux  que  moi.  Some  other  will  tell 
it  you  better  than  I. 

Son  fils  et  deux  autres  personnes,  his  (or  her)  son  and  two  other 
persons. 

Ii'autre  jour,  the  other  day,  recently. 

C'est  une  autre  affaire.     That  is  a  different  matter. 

Autres  temps,  autres  mceurs.    Different  times,  other  manners. 

So,  like  the  Latin  aliud — aliud  : 

Autre  est  promettre,  autre  est  donner,  one  thing  to  promise,  an- 
other to  give. 


84 


FREis^CH   GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  y.— YEEBS. 

144.  Conjugation. — Verbs  are  conjugated  in  French,  as 
in  English,  partly  by  terminations  and  partly  by  means 
of  auxiliary  verbs.  The  verbs  avoir,  ^to  have,'  and  etre, 
Ho  be,'  are  both  used  as  auxiliaries,  and  they  are  there- 
fore given  first,  in  full. 

145.  The  Verb  Avoir  (Latin  habere). 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 


Simple  Tenses. 

Compound  Tenses. 

Present. 

Perfect. 

Sing 

1. 

J'ai 

I  have. 

J'ai  eu 

I  have  had. 

2. 

Tuas 

thou  hast. 

Tu  as  eu 

thou  hast  had. 

3. 

11  a 

he  has. 

Ilaeu 

he  has  had. 

Plur. 

1. 

Nous  avons 

we  have. 

Nous  avons  eu 

we  have  had. 

3. 

Vous  avez 

you  have. 

Vous  avez  eu 

you  have  had. 

3. 

lis  ont 

they  have. 

Hs  ont  eu 

they  have  had. 

Imperfect 

. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing. 

1. 

J'avais 

I  had. 

J'avais  eu 

I  had  had. 

2. 

Tu  avals 

thou  hadst. 

Tu  avals  eu 

thou  hadst  had. 

3. 

11  avait 

he  had. 

11  avait  eu 

he  had  had. 

Plur. 

1. 

Nous  avions  we  liad. 

Nous  avions  eu 

we  had  had. 

2. 

Vous  aviez 

you  had. 

Vous  avlez  eu 

you  had  had. 

3. 

lis  av^lent 

they  had. 

lis  avaient  eu 

they  had  had. 

Preterite. 

Past  Preterite. 

Sing. 

1. 

J'eus 

I  had. 

J'eus  eu 

I  had  had. 

2. 

Tu  eus 

thou  hadst. 

Tu  eus  eu 

thou  hadst  had. 

3. 

Ileut 

he  had. 

11  eut  eu 

he  had  had. 

Plur. 

1. 

Nous  eilmes 

we  had. 

Nous  eiimes  eu 

we  had  had. 

2. 

Vous  eMes 

you  had. 

Vous  eiites  eu 

you  had  had. 

3. 

lis  eurent 

they  had. 

lis  eurent  eu 

they  had  had. 

Future. 

Future 

Perfect. 

Sing. 

1. 

aursd 

shall  have. 

aural  eu 

shall  have  had. 

2. 

auras 

wilt  have. 

auras  eu 

wilt  have  had. 

8. 

aura 

will  have. 

auraeu 

will  have  had. 

Plur. 

1. 

aurons 

shall  have. 

aurons  eu 

shall  have  had. 

2. 

aurez 

will  have. 

aurez  eu 

will  have  had. 

3. 

auront 

will  have. 

auront  eu 

will  have  had. 

YEEBS. 

85 

Conditional  Present. 

Conditional  Past. 

Sing. 

1.  aurais 

should  have. 

aurais  eu 

should  have  had. 

3.  aurais 

wouldst  have. 

aurais  eu 

would  have  had. 

3.  aurait 

would  have. 

aurait  eu 

would  have  had. 

Plur. 

1.  aurions 

should  have. 

aurions  eu 

should  have  had. 

2.  auriez 

would  have. 

auriez  eu 

would  have  had. 

3.  auraient 

would  have. 

auraient  eu 

would  have  had. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.* 

Present. 

Perfect. 

Sing. 

1.  aie 

(may)  have. 

aieeu 

(may)  have  had. 

2.  ales 

(mayst)  have. 

aies  eu 

(mayst)  have  had. 

3.  aie 

(may)  have. 

aie  eu 

(may)  have  had. 

Plur. 

1.  ayons 

(may)  have. 

ayons  eu 

(may)  have  had. 

2.  ayez 

(may)  have. 

ayez  eu 

(may)  have  had. 

3.  aient 

(may)  have. 

aient  eu 

(may)  have  had. 

Preterite. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing. 

1.  eusse 

(might)  have. 

eusse  eu 

(might)  have  had. 

2.  eusses 

(mightst)  have. 

eiisses  feu 

(mightst)  have  had 

3.  eilt 

(might)  have. 

eusses  eu 

(might)  have  had. 

Plur 

1.  eussions 

(might)  have. 

eussions  eu 

(might)  have  had. 

2.  eussiez 

(might)  have. 

eussiez  eu 

(might)  have  had. 

3.  eussent 

(might)  have. 

eussent  eu 

(might)  have  had. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Sing.  2.  aie  tu       have  thou.  I  PI.  2.  ayez  vous    have  ye. 

3.  qu'il  aie  let  him  have.     |        3.  qu'ils  aient  let  them  have. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

Present.  i  Perfect. 

avoir  to  have.  avoir  eu  to  have  had. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Present. 
ayant  having. 

Perfect. 
eu  had. 


Compound 

Perfect. 

ayant  eu  having  had. 


*  Note.— The  meaning  of  the  Subjunctive  depends  on  the  connection  in  which 
it  stands  in  the  sentence,  and  '  might '  and  '  may '  are  only  inserted  for  conve- 
nience.   The  Subjunctive  is  not  usually  translated  by  the  so-called  "Potential." 

OF  THB 

UNIVERSITY 


86 


FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 


Note. — The  negative,  interrogative,  and  negative-interrogative 
forms  of  avoir  are  not  given  here.  The  mode  of  their  formation 
will  be  found  described  in  Sees.  160  and  161. 

146.  The  Verb  Etre  (late  Latin  essere)  : 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 


Present 

Perfect. 

Sing.  1.  suis 

am. 

aiete 

have  been. 

2.  es 

art. 

as  ete 

hast  been. 

3.  est 

is. 

a^te 

has  been. 

Plur.  1.  sommes 

are. 

avons  ete 

have  been. 

2.  Mes 

are. 

avez  ete 

have  been. 

3.  sent 

are. 

ont  ete 

have  been. 

Imperfect. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing.  1.  etais 

was. 

avais  ete 

had  been. 

2.  etais 

wast. 

avais  ete 

hadst  been. 

3.  etait 

was. 

avait  ete 

had  been. 

Plur.  1.  etions 

were. 

avions  ete 

had  been. 

2.  etiez 

were. 

aviez  ete 

had  been. 

3.  etaient 

were. 

avaient  ete 

had  been. 

Preterite. 

Past  Preterite. 

Sing.  1.  fus 

was. 

eus  ete 

had  been. 

2.  fus 

wast. 

eus  ete 

hadst  been. 

3.  fut 

was. 

eut  ete 

had  been. 

Plur.  1.  fames 

were. 

eumes  ete 

had  been. 

2.  fates 

were. 

elites  ete 

had  been. 

3.  furent 

were. 

eurent  ete 

had  been. 

Future 

. 

Future  Perfect. 

Sing.  1.  serais 

shall  be. 

aurai  ete 

shall  have  been. 

2.  seras 

wilt  be. 

auras  ete 

wilt  have  been. 

3.  sera 

wiUbe. 

aura  ete 

will  have  been. 

Plur.  1.  serons 

shall  be. 

aureus  ete 

shall  have  been. 

2.  serez 

will  be. 

aurez  ete 

will  have  been. 

3.  seront 

will  be. 

auront  ete 

will  have  been. 

Conditional  Present. 

Conditional  Past. 

Sing.  1.  serais 

should  be. 

aurais  ete 

should  have  been. 

2.  serais 

wouldst  be. 

aurais  ete 

wouldst  have  been. 

3.  serait 

would  be. 

aurait  ete 

would  have  been. 

Plur.  1.  serions 

should  be. 

aurions  ete 

should  have  been. 

2.  seriez 

would  be. 

auriez  ete 

would  have  been. 

3.  seraient 

would  be. 

auraient  ete  would  have  been 

VERBS. 


87 


StDBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 


Present. 


Sing.  1.  sois 
3.  sois 
3.  soit 

Plur.  1.  soyons 

2.  soyez 

3.  soient 


(may)  be. 
(mayst)  be. 
(may)  be. 
(may)  be. 
(may)  be. 
(may)  be. 


aie  ete 
aies  ete 
aie  ete 
ayons  ete 
ayez  ete 
aient  ete 


Perfect. 

(may)  have  been, 
(mayst)  have  been, 
(may)  have  been, 
(may)  have  been, 
(may)  have  been, 
(may)  have  been. 


Preterite. 


Sing.  1.  fusse 

2.  fusses 

3.  fut 
Plur.  1.  fussions 

2.  fussiez 

3.  fussent 


Sing.  2.  sois  tu 
3.  qu'il  soit 


(might)  be. 
(mightst)  be. 
(might)  be. 
(might)  be. 
(might)  be. 
(might)  be. 


Pluperfect. 
eusse  ete      (might)  have  been, 
eusses  et6     (mightst)  have  been, 
eiit  ete  (might)  have  been, 

eussions  ete  (might)  have  been, 
eussiez  ete  (might)  have  been, 
eussent  ete  (might)  have  been. 


IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

be  thou.  I  Plur.  2.  soyez  vous  be  ye. 

let  hiTTi  be.     I  3.  qu'ils  soient  let  them  be. 

rNFINITIVE  MODE. 


Present. 
^tre  to  be. 


Perfect. 
avoir  ete  to  have  been. 


Compound. 
ayant  ete  having  been. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  I  Perfect. 

etant  being.      I      ete  been. 

147.  Use  of  the  Auxiliary  Verbs. 

1.  Avoir  is  used  as  auxiliary  with  active  verbs,  with  im- 
personal verbs,  and  with  most  intransitive  verbs  : 

Je  I'ai  vu,  I  saw  him. 

II  a  fallu,  it  was  necessary. 

II  a  parle,  he  has  spoken. 

2.  Etre  is  used  as  auxiliary  with  passive,  reflexive,  and 
reciprocal  forms,  and  with  some  intransitive  verbs  : 


88  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

Je  suis  aime,  I  am  loved. 

II  s'est  flatte,  lie  flattered  himself. 

Je  suis  venu,  il  est  all6,  I  have  come,  he  is  gone.     "^ 

3.  In  general,  those  intransitive  verbs  which  express  an 
action  of  the  subject  take  avoir  as  an  auxiliary ;  those 
which  express  a  state,  resulting  from  the  action,  take 
etre  as  an  auxiliary  : 

J'ai  couru,  I  ran,  I  have  run. 

Je  suis  venu,  I  am  come  (having  come,  I  am  here). 

4.  A  few  verbs  may  take  either  avoir  or  etre  as  auxilia- 
ries, frequently  with  a  distinction  of  meaning,  the  former 
denoting  action,  the  latter  denoting  resulting  state  : 

J'ai  reste  im  an.     I  stayed  a  year. 

Qui  lui  soit  reste,  which  remained  to  him. 

La  procession  a  passe.    The  procession  has  passed. 

O'est  passe  en  proverbe.    It  has  passed  into  a  proverb. 

REGULAR    CONJUGATIONS. 

148.  Three  Conjugations. — There  are  in  French  three 
regular  conjugations  of  verbs,  distinguished  by  the  ending 
of  the  present  infinitive,  which  in  the  first  is  -er,  in  the 
second  -ir,  and  in  the  third  -re.  The  first  contains  about 
nine  tenths  of  all  French  verbs,  the  second  about  four 
hundred  verbs,  and  the  third  about  fifty. 

Some  verbs  undergo  euphonic  changes  of  the  stem,  con- 
sequent upon  the  addition  of  the  inflexional  endings,  and 
some  may  be  said  to  be  irregular.  These  peculiarities  will 
be  described  in  subsequent  sections. 

The  simple  tenses  of  the  three  regular  conjugations 
are  given  in  the  next  section.  The  compound  tenses  are 
formed  exactly  as  in  avoir,  already  given.  The  negative, 
interrogative,  negative-interrogative,  passive,  and  reflexive 
forms  will  follow. 

Note. — Some  grammarians  make  another  conjugation  out  of  a  few 
peculiar  verbs  ending  in  -oir ;  there  is  also  a  class  of  verbs  ending 


REGULAR   COKJUGATIOl^S. 


89 


in  -ir,  wliicli  differ  somewliat  from  the  more  common  form  of  the 
second  conjugation.  These  might  be  erected  into  a  fifth  conjuga- 
tion.    Both  these  classes  are  described  below. 


149.  Simple  Tenses  of  Regular  Verbs. 


First  Conjugation. 
Chanter,  *  to  sing.' 


Second  Conjugation. 
Finir,  *  to  finish.' 


Third  Conjugation. 
Vendre,  '  to  sell. 


INDICATIVE  MODE. 


Pbesent. 

Present. 

Present. 

'Idng,*  &c. 

'I  finish;  &c. 

'I  sell;  &c. 

chante 

finis 

vends 

chantes 

finis 

vends 

chante 

finit 

vend 

chantons 

finlssons 

vendons 

chantez 

finissez 

vendez 

chantent 

finissent 

vendent 

Imperfect. 

Imperfect. 

Imperfect. 

*Iwa8  singing,'  &c. 

*  I  was  finishing;  &c. 

*I'was  selling;  &c. 

chantaiH 

finissais 

vendais 

chantais 

finissais 

vendais 

chantait 

finissait 

vendait 

chantions 

finissions 

vendions 

chantiez 

finissiez 

vendiez 

chantaient 

finissaient 

vendaient 

Pretekite. 

Preterite. 

PrETERI'I'E. 

*  I  sang,'  &c. 

'I finished;  &c. 

'Isold;  &c. 

chantai 

finis 

vendis 

chantas 

finis 

vendis 

chanta 

finit 

vendit 

chantames 

finimes 

vendimes 

chantates 

finites 

vendites 

chanterent 

finirent 

vendirent 

90 


FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 


FUTUEE. 

FUTUEE. 

Future. 

*I  shall  dng,'  &c. 

'I shall  finish,'  &c. 

'I  shall  sell;  kc. 

chanterai 

finirai 

vendrai 

chanteras 

finiras 

vendras 

chantera 

fiaiira 

vendra 

chanterons 

finirons 

vendrons 

chanterez 

finirez 

vendrez 

chanteront 

finiront 

vendront 

Conditional  Pees. 

Conditional  Pees. 

Conditional  Pees. 

*  I  should  dng,'  &c. 

'I  should  finisJi,'  &c. 

*  I  should  sdi;  &c. 

chanterais 

finiraia 

vendrais 

chanterais 

finirais 

vendrais 

chanterait 

finirai  t 

vendrait 

chanterions 

finirions 

vendrions 

chanteriez 

finiriez 

vendriez 

chanteraient 

finiraient 

vendraient 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 


Peesent. 

Peesent. 

Peesent. 

chante 

finisse 

vende 

chantes 

finisses 

vendes 

chante 

finisse 

vende 

chantions 

finissions 

vendions 

chantiez 

finissiez 

vendiez 

chantent 

finissent 

vendent 

PRETEEITE.n^ 

Peeteeite. 

Peeteeite. 

chantasse 

finisse 

vendisse 

chantasses 

finisses 

vendisses 

chantat 

finit 

vendit 

chantassions 

finissions 

vendissions 

chantassiez 

finissiez 

vendissiez 

chantassent 

finissent 

vendissent 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 


chante 

finis 

vends 

chantons 

finissons 

vendons 

chantez 

finissez 

vendez 

KEGULAR    COJfJUGATIONS. 
INFINITIVE  MODE. 

91 

chanter 

finir 

vendre 

PARTICIPT,F,S. 

chantant 
chante 

finissant 
fini 

vendant 
vendu 

150.  Remarks  on  the  Regular  Verb. 

1.  In  tlie  second  conjugation  the  syllable  -iss-,  inserted 
between  the  stem  and  the  ending,  in  most  verbs,  in  the 
Present,  Imperfect,  Imperative,  and  Present  Participle,  is 
derived  from  the  Latin -isc- and -esc-  in  *' Inchoative" 
verbs  : — palir,  Lat.  pallesco  ;  g6mir,  Lat.  ingemisco  ;  noir- 
cir,  Lat.  nigresco  ;  fleurir,  Lat.  floresco.  But  some  verbs 
follow  this  analogy  and  insert  the  -iss-  which  are  not 
derived  from  inchoative  verbs  : — p6rir,  punir,  finir,  ravir, 
r6gir. 

A  large  class  of  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  do  not 
insert  this  syllable  -iss- ;  they  will  be  described  in  Sec. 
152. 

2.  The  circumflex  accent  which  will  be  noticed  in  the 
Preterite  Indicative  and  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  is  a 
mark  of  the  dropping  out  of  an  s  in  the  old  Prench 
form,  which  is  also  shortened  from  the  Latin: — chantates, 
Old  French  chantastes,  Latin  cantavistis;  aimtoes,  Old 
French  aimasmes,  Latin  amavimus.  So  also  in  the  verb 
etre,  Latin  esse,  Late  Latin  essere,  Old  French  estre  ;  etes, 
Latin  estis,  &c. 

3.  The  grave  accent  in  the  Preterite  Third  Person  Plural 
of  the  first  conjugation,  is  the  accent  usually  written  over 
the  vowel  e  in  French,  when  followed  by  a  final  e  mute 
after  a  single  consonant ;  as  in  fiddle,  riviere  (Latin  ripa- 
ria),  and  a  large  class  of  words  derived  from  Latin  words 


92  FEEKCH   GKAMMAR. 

ending  in  -arius,  -aria,  &c.,  or  following  the  analogy  of 
those  which  are  so  derived. 

PECULIARITIES    OF    ORTHOGRAPHY, 
In  Verbs  otherwise  regular. 
151.  First  Conjugation. 

1.  Verbs  which  have  e  or  6  in  the  last  syllable  of  the 
stem,  strengthen  this  syllable  when  followed  by  e  mute  in 
the  ending,  by  taking  the  grave  accent,  or  by  doubling  the 
final  consonant  of  the  stem  if  it  is  1  or  t : 

Mener — mene,  mends,  menent,  menerai,  meneras,  menera, 
menerais. 

Oeder — cede,  cedes,  cedent. 

Appeler — appelle,  appelles,  appellent,  &c. 

Jeter — jette,  jettes,  jettent,  jetterai,  jetterais,  &c. 

Exceptions. — Verbs  ending  in  -eger  and  -eer  retain  the  acute  ac- 
cent in  the  stem  : 

Proteger — protege,  protegent,  protegerai,  &c. 

Oreer — cree,  creeut,  creerai,  creerais,  &c. 

Note  1. — Some  verbs  wbose  stems  end  in  1  or  t  take  the  grave  ac- 
cent instead  of  doubling  the  1  or  t,  viz.  : 

Celer — cele,  celent,  celerai,  &c. 

Acheter — achete,  achetent,  acheterai,  &c.,  and  also  ecarteler, 
geler,  harceler,  and  decoUeter. 

Note  2, — Verbs  which  have  e  in  the  last  syllable  of  the  stem  do 
not  change  this  to  e  in  the  Future: — Oeder — cede,  cedent,  &c.,  as 
above,  but  cederai,  cederais,  &c.  (the  Conditional  being  a  Future 
form). 

2.  Verbs  ending  in  -ger  and  -cer  preserve  the  soft  sound 
of  the  g  and  the  c  before  a  or  o  of  the  ending,  by  inserting 
an  e  after  the  g  and  adding  a  cedilla  to  the  c : 

Manger — mangeons,  mangeai,  mangeames,  mangerent. 
Placer — plaQons,  pla9ais,  placions. 

3.  Verbs  ending  in  -ayer,  -oyer,  -uyer,  -ier,  -uer  often 


PECULIAEITIES   OF  OETHOGEAPHY.  93 

elide  e  mute  in  the  future  forms,  denoting  its  absence  by 
the  circumflex  accent : 
Payer — ^paierai ;  Balayer — ^balairai ;  Oublier — oublierai,  &c. 

4.  Verbs  ending  in  -ayer,  -oyer,  and  -uyer  change  this  y 
into  i  before  e  mute  : 

Payer — paie,  paient,  &c.  ;  payons,  payez. 
Employer — emploie,  emploierai,  &c. 
Note. — ^Verbs  in  -ayer  may  retain  the  y : 

Payer — ^paie  or  paye,  paient  or  payent,  &c. 

5.  In  verbs  ending  in  -Tier  some  writers  add  a  diaeresis 
to  the  i  of  the  ending  when  it  follows  the  u  and  precedes 
another  vowel : 

Jouer — jonions,  jouiez. 
Tuer — tuions,  tuiez,  &c. 

152.  Second  Conjugation. 

1.  Several  verbs,  called  pure  verbs,  do  not  insert  the 
syllable  iss  in  the  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Participle,  as  in 
the  regular  form.  They  are  mostly  from  the  Latin  fourth 
conjugation.     They  are : 

Dormir  (dormire)  'sleep,'  mentir  (mentiri)  'he,'  sentir  (sentire) 
*feel/  partir  (partire)  'set  out,'  sortir  (sortiri)  'go  out,'  servir  (ser- 
vire)  *  serve,'  bouillir  (bullire)  'boil,'  saillir  (salire)  'project,'  *  sally,' 
v^tir  (vestire)  '  clothe,'  fuir  (fugere)  '  flee,'  cueillir  (colligere)  *  cull,' 
repentir  (pcenitere)  '  repent,'  and  their  compounds. 

Excepting — repartir,  assortir,  ressortir,  asservir,  investir,  reussir. 

Note  that  departir,  repartir  follow  the  pure  form,  though  other 
compounds  of  the  same  follow  the  inchoative. 

Also,  a  few  verbs  otherwise  irregular  : 

ouvrir  (operire)  '  open,'  couvrir  (cooperire)  *  cover,'  ofl&rir  (offere) 
*  ofEer,'  souffrir  (suffere)  *  sufEer,'  and  compounds. 

2.  Verbs  of  the  above  class  whose  stems  end  in  m,  t,  or 
V,  replace  it  by  s  in  the  first  and  second  persons  of  the  In- 
dicative Present,  and  those  in  m  or  v  replace  it  by  t  in  the 
third  person  of  the  same  tense  : 


94 


FEENCH    GEAMMAR. 


Dormir — 

dors     dormons 
dors     dormez 
dort    dorment 


Sentir — 
sens     sentons 
sens     sentez 
sent    sentent 


Servir — 
sers     servons 
sers     servez 
sert    servent 


Exception. — V^tir  retains  its  t : 

Vets,  v^ts,  v6t,  v^tons,  v^tez,  v^tent. 

3.  Verbs  of  this  class  whose  stems  end  in  11,  vr,  or  fr, 
take  e  mute  in  the  first  and  second  persons  of  the  Present 
Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  like  verbs  of  the  first  con- 
jugation : 


Oueillir — 
cueille     cueillons 
cueilles  cueillez 
cueille     cueillent 


Ouvrir — 
ouvre     ouvrons 
ouvres     ouvrez 
ouvre     ouvrent 


SoufiErir — 

soufifre  soufiirons 

souflfres  souffrez 

soufire  soufErent. 


Exception. — Bouillir,  '  to  boil/  has  in  the  present  bous,  bous, 
bout,  bouillons,  bouillez,  bouillent. 

4.  Hair  drops  the  dia3resis  in  the  singular  of  the  Pres- 
ent Indicative. 

153.  Third  Conjugation.— This  conjugation  differs  but 
little  from  the  pure  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation.  It 
contains  very  few  regular  verbs,  mostly  from  the  third 
Latin  conjugation. 

1.  Verbs  ending  in  -indre  insert  a  g  before  the  n,  when 
it  is  followed  by  a  vowel  of  the  ending: 

Joindre,  'join,'  joignons,  joignant,  &c.  ;  craindre,  *  fear,'  crai- 
gnons,  &c. 

2.  Verbs  ending  in  -indre  also  drop  the  d  of  the  stem 
when  it  is  not  followed  by  r  of  the  ending  : 

Craindre,  crains,  crains,  craint,  craignons,  &c. ;  craindrai,  &c. 

3.  Stems  ending  in  c  preserve  the  hardness  of  the  c, 
before  e  and  i  of  the  ending,  by  changing  it  to  qu: 

Vaincre,  vainque,  Subj.  Pres.  ;  vainquis,  Pret.  Indie,  &c.  ;  vain- 
crai,  Fut.  Indie,  &c. 
Also,  by  analogy,  the  form  vainquons,  &c. 


IKREGULAR  VERBSt 


95 


4.  Plaire,  'please,'  takes  the  circumflex  accent  upon  i 
before  t,  after  the  analogy  of  verbs  in  aitre : 

Plaire,  plait,  &c. 

154,  Verbs  in  -cevoir. — A  few  verbs  ending  in  -cevoir, 
derived  from  the  Latin  compounds  of  capere,  are  irregu- 
lar in  part.  The  c  of  this  ending  takes  the  cedilla  before 
a,  0,  and  u : 

Recevoir  (recipere)  '  receive ' : 


.  regois 

Fut. 

recevrai 

Pret. 

regus 

re9ois 

recevras 

regus 

re9oit 

recevra 

regut 

recevons 

recevrons 

regiimes 

recevez 

recevrez 

regutes 

regoivent 

recevront 

regxirent 

Subj.  Pres.  receive,  &c. 

Imperf.  regusse 

Part.  Pres.  recevant* 

Perfect.  regu. 

Note. — Devoir  follows  the  analogy  of  verbs  in  -cevoir:  Pres. 
dois,  dois,  doit,  devons,  devez,  doivent.    Participle  Perf.  dii,  &c. 

Remark. — Other  verbs  ending  in  -oir  are  conjugated  for  the  most 
part  like  the  pure  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation,  but  bave,  in 
general,  some  irregularities.  These  few  verbs  in  -cevoir  are  by- 
some  made  a  separate  conjugation. 

155.  Irregular  or  Strong  Verbs. — Some  verbs  not  entirely- 
regular  are  called  "  strong"  because  they  strengthen  the 
stem-syllable  by  changing  its  vowel,  in  the  singular  and  in 
the  third  person  of  the  plural  of  the  Present  Indicative: 

Tenir,  'bold'  — 
tiens    tenons 
tiens     tenez 
tient    tiennent 


Mourir,  'die'  — 
meurs     mourons 
meurs    mourez 
meurt    meurent 


sais    Savons 
sais     savez 
sait    savent. 


Savoir  bas  savent,  regular  form,  in  the  third  plural. 

Note. — The  verbs  in  -cevoir,  described  above,  are  also  "  strong' 


96 


PREKCH   GBAMMAK. 


verbs,  but  were  placed  by  themselves  as  forming  a  class,  and  having 

some  special  peculiarities. 

156.  Table  of  Irregular  Verbs. — At  the  end  of  this  part 
of  this  book  will  be  found  a  table  containing  a  full  de- 
scription of  all  irregular,  anomalous,  or  defective  verbs, 
including  those  mentioned  above.  Hence  Terbs  of  this 
kind  will  not  be  further  described  at  present.  The  above 
sections  describe  all  that  can  advantageously  be  classified. 
The  compound  tenses  and  forms  of  the  regular  verb  will 
now  be  given,  in  the  succeeding  sections. 

157.  Compound  Tenses. — Active  verbs  form  their  com- 
pound tenses  bv  combining  their  Perfect  Participles  with 
the  simple  tenses  of  the  verb  avoir,  exactly  as  in  the  verbs 
avoir  and  etre,  already  given  in  full.  The  following  tabu- 
lar view  shows  the  manner  of  their  formation. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 


Perfect  Tense. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

J'ai 

J'avais 

0t 

Tuas 

chante 

Tu  avals 

chante 

Ha 

fini 

n  avait 

fini 

Nous  avons 

vendu 

Nous  avions 

vendu. 

Ac, 

&c. 

Preterite  Past. 

Future  Perfect. 

J'eus 

J'aurai 

Tu  eus 

chante 

Tu  auras 

chante 

Ileut 

fini 

H  aura 

fini 

Nous  eumes 

vendu 

Nous  a\irons 

vendu. 

&c. 

&c. 

CoNDrriONAL  Past. 

J'aurais 

Tu  aurais 

chante 

11  aurait 

fini 

Nous  aurions 

vendu. 

&c. 

• 

PASSIVE   FORMS. 


97 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 


Perfect  Tense. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

(Que)  j'aie 
(Que)  tu  aies 
(Qu')  il  aie 
(Que)  nous  ayons 

chante 

fini 

vendu 

(Que)  j'eusse 
(Que)  tu  eusse 
(Qu')  il  ett 
(Que)  nous  eiimes 

chante 

fini 

vendu. 

&c. 

Infinitive  Perfect. 

Compound  Participle. 

f  chante 

r  chante 

avoir  j  fini 

ay  ant  H 

fini 

vendu 

[^  vendu. 

Verbs  conjugated  with  etre  as  auxiliary  form  their  com- 
pound tenses  exactly  like  these,  only  substituting  the  sim- 
ple tenses  of  etre  for  those  of  avoir. 

158.  The  Passive  Voice. — The  passive  forms  are  conju- 
gated with  the  verb  etre,  the  simple  tenses  of  etre  being 
joined  with  the  Perfect  Participle  of  the  active  verb  agree- 
ing in  gender  and  number  with  the  subject.  The  follow- 
ing tenses  of  the  verb  aimer,  *love/  will  serve  as  a  model: 

INDICATIVE  MODE,  Present  Tense. 
Je  suis  aime  or  aimee,  I  am  loved. 
Tu  es  aime  or  aimee,  thou  art  loved. 
II  est  aime  or  aimee,  he  is  loved. 
Nous  sommes  aimes  or  aimees,  we  are  loved. 
Vous  ^tes  aimes  or  aimees  or  aime  or  aimee,  you  are  loved, 
lis  or  elles  sont  aimes  or  aimees,  they  are  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 
J'ai  ete  aime  or  aimee,  I  have  been  loved. 

&c. 
Nous  avons  ete  aimes  or  aimees,  we  have  been  loved. 

&c. 

Future  Tense. 
Je  serais  aime  or  aimee,  I  shall  be  loved. 

&c. 
Nous  serons  aimes  or  aimees,  we  shall  he  loved. 

(&C. 

5 


98  FKENCH   GKAMMAK. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  Present. 
(Que)  je  sois  aime  or  aimee,  (that)  I  may  be  loved. 
(Que)  nous  soyons  aimes  or  aimees,  (that)  we  may  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 
(Que)  j'aie  ete  aime  or  aimee,  (that)  I  )  may  have  been 

(Que)  nous  ayons  ete  aimes  or  aimees,  (that)  we )         loved. 

INFINITIVE. 
Eire  aime  or  aimee  or  aimes  or  aimees,  to  be  loved. 
Avoir  ete  aim6  or  aimee  or  aimes  or  aimees,  to  have  been  loved. 

159.  Reflexive  Verbs  are  conjugated  by  means  of  a 
double  pronoun,  tl>e  subject  and  the  object,  both  phiced 
before  the  verb,  and  with  the  verb  etre  as  auxiliary.  The 
verb  se  flatter,  '  flatter  one's  self,'  given  below,  will  serve 
as  a  model. 

INDICATIVE  Present. 
Je  me  flatte,  I  flatter  myself. 
Tu  te  flattes,  thou  flatterest  thyself. 
Elle  se  flatte,  she  flatters  herself. 
n  se  flatte,  he  flatters  himself. 
Nous  nous  flattons,  we  flatter  ourselves. 
Vous  vous  flattez,  you  flatter  yourselves. 

•nn  XI  IX  '  X  !-they  flatter  themselves  or  one  another. 

Elles  se  flattent, )       '' 

Perfect  Tense. 

Je  me  suis  flatte  or  flattee,  I  have  flattered  myself. 

Tu  t'es  flatte  or  flattee,  thou  hast  flattered  thyself. 

Il  or  elle  s'est  flatte  or  flattee,  he  (or  she)  has  flattered 
him(her)self. 

Nous  nous  sommes  flattes  or  flattees,  we  have  flattered  ourselves. 

Vous  vous  6tes  flatte  or  flattee  or  flattes  or  flattees,  you  have 
flattered  yourselves. 

Us  or  elles  se  sont  flattes  or  flattees,  they  have  flattered  them- 
selves or  each  other. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Flatte-toi,  flatter  thyself. 

Flattons-nous,  let  us  flatter  ourselves. 


IKTEEROGATIVE   FOKMS. 


99 


Other  parts  of  the  reflexive  verb  may  easily  be  formed 
on  the  above  models.  The  parts  given  above  are  those 
most  used. 

Note. — ^Verbs  reflexive  in  Frencli  are  not  always  reflexive  in 
English  : 

Se  rejouir,  to  rejoice.  I      S'endormir,  go  to  sleep. 


S'enrhumer,  catch  cold. 


Se  vanter,  boast  (one's  self). 


160.  Negative  Conjugation. — The  negative  form  of  any 
verb  is  formed  by  placing  the  negative  adverb  ne  before 
the  verb,  and  pas  or  some  other  word  such  as  rien  or  plus, 
to  complete  the  negation,  after  the  verb  : 


Je  n'ai  pas,  I  have  not. 

Tu  n'as  pas,  thou  hast  not. 

II  n'a  pas,  he  has  not. 

Nous  n'avons  pas,  we  have  not. 


Je  ne  suis  pas,  I  am  not. 

Tu  n'es  pas,  thou  art  not. 

II  n'est  pas,  he  is  not. 

Nous  ne  sommes  pas,  we  are  not. 


Je  ne  chante  pas.  or  rien,  I  do  not  sing  (or  not  at  all). 

Nous  ne  chantons  pas,  or  plus,  we  do  not  sing  (or  not  any  more). 

II  n'a  jamais  tort,  he  is  never  wrong. 

Exception. — In  the  Infinitive  Present  both  negatives  usually  pre- 
cede the  verb  ;  the  Perfect  Infinitive  follows  the  general  rule  : 

Ne  pas  avoir,  not  to  have. 
Ne  pas  chanter,  not  to  sing. 
N'avoir  pas  eu,  not  to  have  had. 
N'avoir  pas  chante,  not  to  have  sung. 

Note. — See  the  sections  on  Negative  Adverbs. 

161.  Interrogative  Conjugation. — In  the  interrogative 
forms  the  subject  pronoun  is  placed  after  the  principal 
verb  (between  the  verb  and  the  auxiliary,  if  there  be  one), 
and  is  made  enclitic,  joined  by  a  hyphen,  t  being  inserted 
between  the  parts  when  necessary  to  avoid  hiatus : 

Suis-je  ?  am  I  ? 
Es-tu  ?  art  thou  ? 
Est-il  ?  LS  he  ? 
Est-elle  ?  is  she  t 


Ai-je  ?  have  I  ? 
As-tu  ?  hast  thou  ? 
A-t-il  ?  has  he  ? 
Avons-nous  ?  have  we ' 
&c. 


&c. 


100  FREXCH   GIIAMMAE. 

Ai-je  eu  ?  have  I  liad  ? 

As-tu  eu  ?  hast  thou  had  ? 

A-t-il  chante  ?  has  he  sung  ? 

A-t-elle  fini  ?  has  she  finished  ? 

Sont-ils  venus  ?  are  they  come  ? 

Aurai-je,  serai-je?  shall  I  have,  shall  I  be  ? 

Note. — The  vowel  of  je  is  silent  in  these  forms.  Ai-je  is  pro- 
nounced ej,  &c. 

162.  Peculiar  Interrogative  Forms. 

1.  The  regular  interrogative  form,  described  above,  is 
not  generally  used  in  the  first  person  singular  of  the  Pre- 
sent tense,  but  the  phrase  est-ce  que  (see  Sec.  125)  is  used 
in  its  place  : 

Est-ce  que  je  vends  (not  vends-je)  ?    Do  I  sell  ? 
Est-ce  que  je  chante  ?     Am  I  singing  ? 
Est-ce  que  je  me  flatte  ?    Do  I  flatter  myself  ? 

Note. — This  form  may  of  course  be  used  in  other  persons,  &c. ; 
but  euphony  chiefly  demands  its  use  as  described. 

2.  When  the  first  person  singular  of  the  verb  ends  in  e 
mute,  the  regular  form  may  be  used,  the  e  being  marked 
with  the  acute  accent  and  being  pronounced  : 

Aime-je  ?     Do  I  love  ?  Ohante-je  ?    Do  I  sing  ? 

3.  Some  of  the  most  common  every-day  verbs  generally 
use  the  shorter,  more  direct,  regular  form  : 


Ai-je  ?    Have  I  ? 
Fais-je  ?    Do  I  make  ? 
Vais-je?     Do  I  go? 


Dois-je  ?    Do  I  owe  ? 
Sais-je  ?     Do  I  know  ? 
Vois-je  ?     Do  I  see  ? 


Note. — For  other  interrogative  forms  see  Sections  on  Interrogative 
Pronouns. 

163.  Negative-Interrogative  Conjugation. — The  negative- 
interrogative  forms  difier  from  the  simple  interrogative 
only  in  the  insertion  of  ne  and  pas,  and  in  the  order  of 
the  words  in  compound  tenses,  where  the  participle  is 
placed  last  : 


NEGATTYE-IKTERROGATIYE  FOEMS.  101 

N'ai-je  pas  ?    Have  I  not  ? 
N'as-tu  pas  ?     Hast  not  thou  ? 
N'a-t-il  pas  ?     Has  lie  not  ? 
N'a-t-elle  pas  ?     Has  slie  not  ? 

«&c.  &c. 

N'eus-je  pas  chante  ?     Had  I  not  sung  ? 
N'eut-il  pas  fini  ?     Had  lie  not  finislied  ? 
N'eumes-nous  pas  vendu  ?     Had  we  not  sold  ? 

Note. — In  the  first  person  of  the  Present  tense  of  most  verbs  a 
circumlocution  is  generally  used,  similar  to  that  described  in  the  last 
section  : 

N'est-ce  pas  que  je  chante  ?     Do  I  not  sing  ? 
N'est-ce  pas  que  je  me  trompe  ?     Am  I  not  mistaken  ? 
N'est-ce  pas  que  j'ai  donne  ?    Have  I  not  given  ? 
This  form  may  also  be  used  in  other,  persons  and  tenses. 

164.  Reflexive  Forms. — The  negative-reflexive,  interrog- 
ative-reflexive, and  negative-interrogative-reflexive  forms 
are  formed  according  to  the  rules  and  models  given  a})ove. 
The  following  examples  will  sufficiently  show  their  con- 
struction : 

Je  ne  me  suis  pas  flattfe.    I  have  not  flattered  myself. 
Est-ce  que  je  ne  me  trompe  pas  ?     Am  I  not  mistaken  ? 
Se  trompent-ils  ?    Are  they  mistaken  ? 
Ne  me  suis-je  pas  flatte  ?    Have  I  not  flattered  myself  ? 

165.  Some  Peculiar  Forms. 

1.  AUer  ^to  go,'  venir  ^to  come,'  devoir  ^to  owe,'  &c., 
are  used  in  certain  expressions  as  auxiliary  verbs.  The 
forms  thus  made  may  be  conjugated  throughout,  and  are 
actually  used  in  several  tenses  : 

Je  vais  avoir.    I  am  going  to  have  (about  to  have). 
Je  dois  chanter.     I  am  to  sing  (owe  to  sing). 
Je  viens  de  venir.     I  have  just  come  (come  from). 
J'allais  recevoir.    I  was  about  to  receive. 

2.  S'en  aller  'go  away,'  s'en  retourner  'come  back,'  and 
s'en  venir  '  come  away,' may  be  conjugated  throughout, 
and  are  used  in  several  tenses.     En  is  here  an  adverb  of 


n  fallait.    It  was  necessary. 
II  faudra.    It  will  be  necessary. 


102  FREiq-CH   GRAMMAR. 

place,  from  the  Latin  inde,  and  may  be  translated  ^  away,' 
Whence/  'hence/  &c.  : 

Je  m'en  vais.     I  am  going  away. 

M'en  vais-je  ?     Am  I  going  away  ? 

Je  ne  m'en  vais  pas.     I  am  not  going  away. 

Va-t'en !     Ne  t'en  vas  pas  !     Go  !     Don't  go  1 

Je  m'en  suis  alle.     I  went  off. 

U  ne  s'en  est  pas  alle.     He  did  not  go  off. 

Ne  m'en  suis-je  pas  alle  ?    Have  I  not  gone  awa"y  ? 
3.  The  unipersonal  verbs  y  avoir  and  falloir  may  be 
conjugated  throughout,  and  are  actually  used  in  several 
tenses  : 

II  y  a.    There  is.  II  faut.    It  is  necessary. 

II  y  avait.    There  was. 
II  y  aura.     There  will  be. 

Note. — II  fait,  *  it  makes/  is  used  of  the  weather  : 
II  fait  froid.     It  is  cold.  I  II  fait  chaud.    It  is  warm, 

n  fit  chaud.    It  was  warm.  |  II  fit  bon  temps.    It  was  fine. 

AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS. 

166.  The  Verb  Agrees  Avith  its  subject  in  number  and 
person,  as  in  English.     Special  cases  : 

1.  After  a  relative  the  verb  agrees  in  person  and  num- 
ber with  the  antecedent  : 

Ce  sera  vous  qui  irez.    It  is  you  who  will  go. 

2.  If  the  verb  has  several  subjects  it  is  generally  in  the 
plural,  but — 

3.  A  verb  having  several  subjects  which  are  synonymous 
or  in  apposition  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest: 

L'amour  de  travail,  le  gout  de  I'etude  est  un  bien.     Love  of 
labor,  taste  for  study  (is  a  good  thing)  are  good  things. 

4.  A  verb  having  different  subjects  of  different  persons 
agrees  with  the  first  person  in  preference  to  the  second, 

Vous  ou  moi  parlerons.    You  or  I  will  speak. 


AGREEMENT  OF   VERBS.  103 

5.  A  yerb  whose  subject  is  a  collective  noun  limited  by 
de  with  a  noun  is  in  the  plural: 

Une  nuee  de  barbares  desolerent  le  pays.   A  cloud  of  barbarians 
desolated  tlie  land. 
(The  logical  subject  being  barbares.) 

Exception. — A  noun  of  quantity  often  takes  a  singular  verb,  when 
the  logical  subject  may  be  considered  as  a  unit : 

Le  tiers  des  livres  ne  fut  pas  vendu.  Not  a  third  of  the  books 
were  sold. 

Note. — A  collective  noun  alone  does  not,  as  often  in  English,  take 
a  plural  verb : 

Le  peuple  s'est  revolte.    The  people  have  revolted. 

6.  When  two  subjects  are  joined  by  ni — ni,  'neither — 
nor/  the  verb  agrees  with  the  logical  subject  in  number  : 

Ni  I'un  ni  I'autre  ne  savent  lire.  Neither  knows  how  to  read 
(both  are  ignorant). 

Ni  I'un  ni  I'autre  n'obtiendra  le  prix.  Neither  one  will  get  the 
prize  (both  could  not). 

Note. — ^Hence  I'un  et  I'autre,  and  les  uns  ou  les  autres,  take  a 
plural  verb,  but  I'un  ou  I'autre  a  singular  verb  : 

L'un  et  I'autre,  a  ces  mots,  ont  leve  le  poignard  (Eacine).  Both 
at  these  words  raised  their  daggers. 

7.  Ce  takes  a  plural  verb  only  when  the  predicate  nomi- 
native is  in  file  third  person: 

Oe  sent  des  Anglais.    It  is  some  Englishmen. 
O'est  nous.    It  is  we. 

167.  Government  of  Verbs. — Active  verbs  take  both 
nouns  and  pronouns  for  their  objects,  as  in  English. 
There  are  no  case-endings  of  nouns,  but  the  direct  object 
of  a  verb  may  be  said  to  be  in  the  Objective  Case,  as  in 
English,  or  in  the  Accusative  Case,  as  in  Latin.  Pro- 
nouns have  special  forms  for  the  Direct  Object  and  for  the 
Indirect  Object  or  Dative  Case,  which  have  been  described 
in  the  Cliapter  on  Pronouns. 


104  fre:n'ch  geammar. 

When  a  verb  lias  more  than  one  object  the  shorter  gen- 
erally precedes: 

n  aime  le  jeu  et  I'etude.    He  loves  play  and  study. 

168.  Verbs  with  Prepositions. — Many  verbs  require  cer- 
tain prepositions  after  them,  and  often  different  preposi- 
tions from  those  required  by  the  corresponding  verb  in 
English.     Examples: 

S'emparer  de,  to  seize  upon.  Rire  de,  to  laugh  at. 

Echapper  a,  to  escape  from.  Songer  a,  to  think  of. 

S'enteter  a  (or  de),  to  be  obstinate  in.  Tarder  a,  to  delay. 

S'excuser  de,  to  excuse  one's  self  from.  Fremir  de,  to  tremble  at. 

These  peculiarities  cannot  all  be  classified,  but  the  fol- 
lowing rules  are  of  value  : 

1.  Those  verbs  are  followed  by  de  which  in  Latin  re- 
quire the  genitive  case.     More  particularly:  V^rbs  of — 

a.  Pain,  grief,  complaint,  anxiety,  fear,  doubt,  &c.  :  souflErir  de, 

*  suffer  with  ; '  fremir  de,  *  tremble  at ; '  douter  de,  *  doubt ; '  s'affli- 
ger  de,  '  be  sorry  for ; '  se  chagriner  de,  *  be  vexed  at.' 

b.  Repentance,  shame,  jealousy,  tedium,  anger,  astonishment,  &c. : 
rougir  de,  '  blush  at ; '  se  repentir  de,  *  repent  of  ; '  s'indigner  de, 

*  be  angry  about.' 

c.  Joy,  amusement,  sport,  &c.  :  s'amuser  de,  '  make  fun  of ;  * 
sourir  de,  '  smile  at ; '  se  rejouir  de,  '  rejoice  in  ; '  se  mqquer  de, 
*have  fun  with.' 

d.  Pride,  anger,  punishment,  revenge,  blame,  thanks,  trust,  &c.: 
se  piquer  de,  *  pride  one's  self  on  ; '  punir  de,  *  punish  for  ; '  re- 
mercier  de,  *  thank  for ;'  s'excuser  de,  *beg  pardon  for.' 

2.  Those  verbs  are  followed  by  k  which  in  Latin  require 
the  dative.     More  particularly  :  Verbs  of — 

a.  Participation,  acquiescence,  obedience,  contradiction,  refusal, 
&c.  :  participier  a,  'participate  inj'  adherer  a,  *  adhere  to;'  con- 
venir  a,  '  suit  ; '  renoncer  a,  '  give  up  ;  *  register  a,  '  oppose  ; '  obeir 
a,  *  obey  ; '  ceder  a,  '  give  way  to  ; '  siorvivre  a,  '  survive.' 

b.  Advantage,  disadvantage,  plenty,  want,  appearance,  disappear- 
ance, &c. :  subvenir  a,  *  relieve,  succeed  to  ; '  disparaitre  a,  *  dis- 


USE   OF   THE   TEXSES.  105 

appear  from  ; '  echapper  a,   *  escape  from  ; '  suffire  a,  '  be   enougli 
for  ; '  manquer  a,  '  be  wanting.' 

Note. — Adjectives  of  similar  meaning  take  after  them 
the  same  prepositions  respectiA-ely  : 

Jaloux  de,  *  jealous  of  ; '  furieux  de,  '  angry  at  ; '  insouciant  de, 
*  careless  about  ; '  coiipable  de,  *  blamable  for  ; '  egal  a,  *  equal  to  ;' 
utile  a,  *  useful  to  ; '  fidele  a,  '  f aitliful  to  ; '  favorable  a,  '  favorable 
for,'  &c. 

USE    OF    THE    TENSES. 

169.  Use  of  the  Present  Indicative. — The  Present  Tense 
has  but  one  form  to  correspond  to  the  three  forms  of  the 
English.  Thus,  je  chante  may  mean  ^I  sing/  '  I  am  sing- 
ing/ or  'I  do  sing.' 

1.  The  Present  is  used  to  describe  actions  now  going 
on>  as  in  English. 

2.  The  Present  is  used  to  describe  an  action  or  state 
which  is  past  but  still  continuing: 

n  y  a  trois  ans  que  je  suis  ici.    I  have  been  here  three  years. 

3.  The  Present  may  be  used  in  historical  narration,  to 
describe  past  actions  or  states  more  vividly: 

On  m'appella ;  je  le  vois  etendu  parterre.  They  called  me  ;  I 
saw  him  stretched  on  the  ground. 

4.  The  Present  may  be  used  for  the  Future,  to  convey 
the  idea  of  certainty: 

Je  pars  demain.     I  am  going  to-morrow. 

Son  proces  se  juge  demain.    His  case  will  be  tried  to-morrow. 

Le  peuple  frangais,  s'il  tire  I'epee,  en  jettera  le  fourreau.  Tlie 
French  people,  if  it  draws  the  sword,  will  throw  away  the  scabbard 
(Mignet). 

170.  Use  of  the  Perfect  Indicative.— The  Perfect  Tense 
corresponds  to  the  English  Perfect  in  form,  but  rarely 
does  so  in  sense.  It  is  the  tense  most  used  in  conversa- 
tion. 

5* 


106  FREJTCH   GRAMMAR. 

1.  Tlie  Perfect  is  used  to  describe  an  action  or  state  in 
a  past  time  not  fully  past  or  not  specified: 

Quand  avez-vous  appris  votre  leQon  ?  When  did  you  learn  your 
lesson? 

Nous  avons  vu  la  reine  aujourd'hui.  We  saw  the  queen  to-day 
(or  have  seen). 

2.  The  Perfect  is  often  used  interchangeably  Avitli  the 
Preterite : 

Je  fus  bien  fache  hier.    I  was  very  angry  yesterday. 

J'ai  tenu  hier  ma  seconde  seance.  I  had  my  second  meeting 
yesterday. 

Les  poetes  ont  cree  les  dieux.     The  poets  made  the  gods. 

II  a  vecu  cent  ans,  11  fut  cent  ans  utile.  He  lived  100  years,  he 
was  useful  100  years  (or  has  lived). 

3.  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Future  Per- 
fect : 

Attendez,  j'ai  fini  dans  le  moment.  Wait,  I  shall  have  finished 
in  a  moment. 

Atteiidons,  d'abord  que  je  lui  ale  parle.  Let  us  wait  till  I  have 
spoken  to  him. 

171.  Use  of  the  Imperfect  Indicative. — The  form  of  the 
Imperfect  is  derived  from  the  Latin  Imperfect  in  -abam, 
to  which  also  it  corresponds  in  meaning,  but  answering 
also  in  part  to  the  Latin  Perfect.  It  describes  past  actions 
or  states,  and  has  but  one  form  to  equal  the  three  forms 
in  English.  Thus  je  chantais  may  mean  '  I  sang,'  *  I  was 
singing/  *  I  used  to  sing,'  or  *  I  did  sing.' 

The  Imperfect  regards  an  action  as  occupying  time,  as 
concrete ;  the  Preterite  views  the  action  as  a  completed 
event  or  a  unit,  as  abstract.  Hence  the  Imperfect  is  the 
tense  of  description,  depicting  scenes  and  events  ;  the  Pre- 
terite being  the  tense  of  historical  narration,  relating 
facts. 

1.  The  Imperfect  is  used  to  describe  continued  or  re- 
peated or  customary  past  actions  or  states: 


USE   OF  THE   TEJ^SES.  107 

Calypso  ne  se  pouvait  consoler.     Calypso  was  inconsolable. 

Roland  avait  des  manieres  simples.   Roland  had  simple  manners. 

Les  vaisseaux  restaient  a  sec,  tant  que  dnrait  I'hiver.  The 
ships  remained  on  the  dry  land  as  long  as  the  winter  continued. 

Oui,  tout  a  I'heure  j'etais  un  extravagant.  Yes,  all  at  once  I  be- 
came extravagant.  ^ 

2.  The  Imperfect  is  often  used  in  historical  narration 
for  the  sake  of  vividness  of  description: 

Je  lui  en  parlait  encore  I'autre  jour.  I  spoke  to  biTTi  about  it 
again  the  other  day. 

Leur  flotte  effectuait  une  descente  et  detruisait  les  moissons. 
Their  fleet  effected  a  descent  and  destroyed  the  crops. 

3.  The  Imperfect  may  be  used  of  an  action  which  was 
not  completed,  or  was  prevented,  or  is  contrary,  to  an  ex- 
pressed supposition  or  fact: 

Je  me  noyais,  dans  la  Tamise,  tu  m'a  tire  de  I'eau  (V.  Hugo). 
I  was  drowning  myself  in  the  Thames,  you  pulled  nie  out  of  the 
water. 

Je  pouvais  gagner  cette  victoire,  Si  le  ciel,  n'eilt  voulu  m'en 
derober  la  gloire  (Moliere).  I  could  have  won  that  victory  if 
heaven  had  not  willed  to  deprive  me  of  the  glory  of  it. 

4.  The  Imperfect  may  be  used  to  denote  an  action  or 
state  during  which  some  other  action  is  described  as  hav- 
ing occurred: 

Je  n'etais  eloigne  de  la  riviere ;  je  vis  pres  de  la  des  pas,  &c. 
I  was  not  far  from  the  river  ;   I  saw  near  there  steps,  &c. 

Elle  se  mit  a  fair ;  il  etait  trop  tarde.  She  prepared  to  flee  ;  it 
was  too  late. 

J'ai  trouve  que  la  liberte  valait  mieux  que  la  sante  (Voltaire). 
I  found  that  liberty  was  worth  more  than  health. 

5.  The  Imperfect  is  used  in  hypothetical  clauses  whose 
meaning  is  represented  as  contrary  to  fact: 

Si  ces  brefs  parvenaient  aux  ev^ques,  il  etait  a  craindre,  &c. 
If  these  despatches  had  reached  the  bishops,  it  was  to  be  feared,  &c. 
(Voltaire). 

Si  le  sante  le  lui  permettrait,  il  sortirait.  If  health  permitted 
him,  he  would  go  out. 


108  EEENCH   GRAMMAE. 

Note. — Sometimes  the  hypotlietical  supposition  is  only  rhetorically 
contrary  to  fact : 

Si  Lara  connaissait  I'orgueil,  c'etait  en  parlant  de  Gonsalve. 
If  Lara  knew  pride,  it  was  in  speaking  of  Gonsalvo. 

172;  Use  of  the  Preterite  Tense.— The  form  of  the  Pre- 
terite is  derived  from  the  Latin  Perfect.  It  is  the  tense 
of  historical  narration,  somewhat  resembling  the  Greek 
Aorist.     (Sec.  171.) 

1.  The  Preterite  is  used  to  describe  an  event  or  state 
occurring  in  a  period  of  time  wholly  elapsed  (last  year, 
yesterday,  &c.): 

Je  fus  a  Rome  Tannee  passee.    I  was  at  Rome  last  year. 
II  partit  hier.    He  started  yesterday. 

2.  The  Preterite  is  much  used  to  describe  historical 
events,  e^ien  those  of  a  continued  nature,  where  the  im- 
perfect might  seem  more  appropriate: 

Je  le  priai  de  me  prendre  sur  son  cheval;  il  y  consentit.  I 
begged  him  to  take  me  upon  his  horse ;  he  consented  to  do  so. 

Pendant  que  les  Romains  mepriserent  les  richesses,  lis  furent 
sobres  et  vertueux  (Bossuet).  While  the  Romans  despised  riches, 
&c. 

3.  The  Preterite  is  used  to  describe  an  action  or  state 
which  took  place  during  the  time  of  another  action  or 
state,  expressed  by  the  Imperfect: 

Je  dormais  quand  il  antra.    I  was  asleep  when  he  came  in. 

II  etait  neuf  heures  et  demi  quand  les  chefs  se  rencontrerent. 

It  was  half -past  nine  when  the  chiefs  met  one  another. 

Remark. — The  choice  between  the'Perfect  and  the  Imperfect,  or 
the  Preterite  tenses,  often  turns  on  considerations  of  rhetoric  rather 
than  of  grammar. 

173.  Use  of  the  Pluperfect  Indicative. — The  Pluperfect  is 
formed  from  the  Imperfect,  by  Joining  the  perfect  partici- 
ple, as  the  Preterite  Past  is  formed  from  tlie  Preterite. 
Its  use  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  English  Pluperfect. 


USE   OF   THE   TEl^SES.  109 

1.  The  Pluperfect  is  used  both  in  principal  and  in  de- 
pendent clauses  : 

Necker  avait  conseille  I'economie ;  Colonne  vanta  la  prodi- 
gality. Necker  had  counselled  economy  ;  Colonne  boasted  of  prodi- 
gality. 

Quand  j'avais  tue  un  oiseau,  11  fallait,  &c.  When  I  had  killed 
a  bird,  it  was  necessary,  &c. 

J'avais  cru  entendre  de  ce  cote  ....  I  had  thought  I  heard  on 
that  side  .... 

2.  The  Pluperfect  is  used  in  hypothetical  clauses  where 
the  supposition  is  contrary  to  fact,  corresponding  to  the 
use  of  the  Imperfect  described  above  : 

Si  j'avais  dit  un  mot,  on  vous  donnait  la  mort  (Voltaire).  If  I 
had  said  one  word,  they  would  have  killed  you. 

J'en  parlerai  avec  la  m^me  liberte  que  s'il  avait  cesse  d'ex- 
ister  (Lamartine).  I  shall  speak  of  him  with  the  same  freedom  as 
though  he  had  ceased  to  exist. 

174.  Use  of  the  Preterite  Past. — The  compound  tense  of 
the  Preterite  .does  not  differ  in  meaning  from  the  Pluper- 
fect. It  is  used  with  particles  of  time,  such  as  d6s  que, 
aussit^t  que, '  as  soon  as  ; '  quand,  lorsque,  '  when  ; '  a  peine, 
*  scarcely  ; '  bientSt,  ^  soon,'  &c. : 

D3S  que  Raymond  eut  donne  le  signal  du  depart,  as  soon  as 
Raymond  had  given  the  signal  of  departure. 

L'orsqu'il  fut  entre  dans  la  classe,  when  he  had  entered  the 
class. 

Les  habitans  avaient  abandonne  la  ville  avant  que  Tennemi  y 
entrat.  The  inhabitants  had  abandoned  the  city  before  the  enemy 
entered  it. 

Note. — The  Pluperfect  is  sometimes  used  with  these  par- 
ticles to  express  a  general  or"  universal  truth  : 

Mentor,  qui  craignait  les  maux,  ne  savait  plus  ce  que  c'etait 
que  de  les  craindre,  des  qu'ils  etaient  arrives  (Fenelon). 

175.  Use  of  the  Future  Tenses. — The  Future  and  the 
Future  Perfect  are  used  like  the  corresponding  tenses  in 


110  PRElirCH   GRAMMAR. 

English  ;  the  future  is  often  used  as  a  mild  form  of  the 
imperative  : 

Vous  m'ecrirez  demain.    Write  me  to-morrow. 

Note. — The  Future  is  not  replaced  by  the  Present  so 
often  as  in  English,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Pres- 
ent, to  express  politeness,  irony,  &c. : 

Vous  pouvez  venir  quand  vous  voudrez.  You  can  come  when 
you  (shall)  please. 

Oomme  il  vous  plaira,  monsieur.  As  it  pleases  (shall  please) 
you,  sir. 

Vous  saurez  que  je  suis  fils  unique  d'un  riche  bourgeois  (Le 
Sage).  You  know  (will  know)  that  I  am  the  only  son  of  a  rich 
merchant. 

170.  Use  of  the  Conditional  Tenses. — The  Conditional  (or 
Past  Future)  tenses  differ  only  in  time.  They  are  used 
in  dependent  clauses  as  follows : 

1.  The  Conditional  Present  (or  Imperfect  of  the  Fu- 
ture) and  Conditional  Past  (or  Pluperfect  of  the  Future) 
are  used  in  dependent  clauses  to  describe  an  action  which 
is  future  with  reference  to  the  time  of  the  princijial  verb : 

lis  jurerent  qu'ils  n'attaqueraient  pas  le  roi.  They  swore  not  to 
attack  the  king. 

Un  seul  espoir  restait,  que  le  vice-roi  se  serait  reuni,  &c.  Only 
one  hope  remained,  that  the  viceroy  might  (afterwards)  rejoin,  &c. 

2.  The  Conditional  is  used  in  the  conclusion  of  a  hy- 
potlietical  sentence  whose  condition  is  contrary  to  known 
fact : 

Si  mon  coeur  etait  libre,  11  pourrait  itre  a  vous.  If  my  heart 
were  free  it  might  be  yours. 

II  lui  aurait  donne  cette  place,  s'il  I'avait  demandee.  He  would 
have  given  him  that  place  if  he  had  asked  for  it. 

Note. — The  condition  may  be  suppressed  or  abridged : 
II  serait  impossible,  it  would  be  impossible  (if  I  were  to  try). 
Que  deviendrais-je  sans  eux  ?     What  would  become  of  me  with- 
out them  (if  I  did  not  have  them)  ? 


USE   OF  THE  TEN'SES.  Ill 

3.  The  Conditional  may  be  used  as  a  softened  form  of 
the  Indicative,  to  express  an  assertion  made  doubtfully, 
or  politely,  or  ironically : 

Quoi,  vous  auriez  I'audace !  What  1  you  would  have  the  bold- 
ness (would  you). 

Je  voudrais  qu'il  fit  beau  temps.  I  (would)  wish  it  might  be  fine 
weather. 

Je  me  laisserais  proteger  par  elle !  That  I  should  let  myself  be 
protected  by  her  1 

Vous  auriez  dii  ecrire  une  lettre.  You  should  have  written  a 
letter  (I  tliink). 

N'aurait-elle  point  re9u  ma  lettre  ?  Could  she  not  have  received 
my  letter  (possibly)  ? 

177.  Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. — The  Subjunctive  is  al- 
most exclusively  used  in  dependent  clauses,  and  hence  its 
tense-relations  are  better  described  under  the  head  of  Se- 
quence of  Tenses.   The  following  uses  maybe  noticed  here  : 

1.  The  present  Subjunctive  is  used  for  the  Imperative, 
or  to  express  a  wish  or  a  prayer  : 

Vienne  qui  voudra.     Let  who  will  come. 

Qu'il  vienne.    Let  him  come  (may  he  come). 

Vive  le  roi.    Let  the  king  live  (hurrah  for  the  king). 

Que  Dieu  vous  benisse.     God  bless  you. 

Qu'il  parle,  tout  se  tait.    Let  him  speak,  all  is  silent. 

A  Dieu  ne  plaise,  may  it  not  be  God's  will. 

Vous  le  voulez  ;  soit.     You  desire  it ;  so  be  it. 

2.  The  Present  Subjunctive  is  used  in  a  few  phrases  to 
soften  an  assertion  out  of  doubtfulness  or  politeness  : 

Je  ne  sache  rien,  I  know  nothing  (I  think). 
Que  je  sache,  for  all  I  know  (Latin  quod  sciam). 
Pas  que  je  sache  !     Not  that  I  know  of  I 
Que  je  pense,  as  I  think,  as  it  seems  to  me. 

3.  The  Preterite  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  also  used  in 
commands  or  prayers  : 

Plut  a  Dieu  que,  that  it  might. 

Doit  le  ciel  egaler  le  supplice  a  I'oflfense !  That  heaven  were 
obliged  to  equal  the  punishment  to  the  offence  1  * 


112  FREI^rCH   GRAMMAR. 

Qu'il  choisisse,  s'il  veut,  d'Auguste  ou  de  Tibere.  Let  Mm, 
clioose,  if  lie  will,  Augustus  or  Tiberius. 

SEQUENCE    OF    TENSES. 

178.  Sequence  in  the  Indicative. — The  tenses  of  the  Indi- 
cative may  follow  one  another  according  to  the  time-rela- 
tions of  the  action  or  state  described^  as  in  English.  One 
point  requires  notice. 

1.  The  Imperfect  is  used  in  hypothetical  sentences  to 
express  a  supposition  contrary  to  fact  in  the  present,  and 
the  Pluperfect  to  express"  a  similar  supposition  in  the 
past: 

J'irais  avec  vous  si  j 'avals  le  temps.  I  would  go  with  you  if  I 
had  the  time. 

Si  je  n' avals  pas  appalse  le  querelle,  &c.  (Comeille).  If  I  had 
not  appeased  the  quarrel. 

179.  Sequence  of  Subjunctive  Tenses. 

^  1.  The  Present  Subjunctive  is  used  after  the  Present, 
the  Future  and  the  Perfect  Indicative  (but  the  Perfect 
only  in  its  own  ])roper  meaning)  : 

n  veut  que  je  le  serve.    He  wishes  me  to  serve  him. 

Le  sceptre  ne  sortira  de  Juda,  jusqu'a  ce  que  vienne  celul  qui, 
&c.  (Bossuet).  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Juda  until  he  shall 
come  who — . 

2.  After  other  tenses,  including  the  Perfect  used  with 
the  meaning  of  the  Preterite,  and  after  the  Conditional, 
the  Preterite  Subjunctive  is  used  in  dependent  clauses,  or 
the  Pluperfect,  according  to  the  time-relation  with  the 
principal  verb  : 

Je  doutais      que  vous  etudlassiez  aujourd'hui. 

Je  doutai 

J'ai  doute 

Je  douterais 

J'aiurais  doute 

J'a-^ais  doute 


USE   OF  THE   MODES. 


113 


I  was  doubting  that  jou  were  studying  to-day. 

I  doubted 

I  should  doubt 

I  should  have  doubted 

I  had  doubted 

Je  doutais        que  vous  eussiez  etudie  hier. 

Je  doutai 

J'ai  doute 

Je  douterais 

J'aurais  doute 

J'avais  doute 

I  was  doubting 

I  doubted 

I  should  doubt 

I  should  have  doubted 

I  had  doubted 


that  you  had  studied  yesterday. 


USE   OF    THE    MODES. 

The  Indicative  and  Imperative  are  used  as  in  English, 
except  so  far  as  already  described.  The  Subjunctive,  the 
Infinitive  and  the  Participle  require  special  attention. 

180.  Use  of  the  Subjunctive. — The  Subjunctive  is  used 
to  denote  uncertainty,  conditionality,  or  dependence  of 
thought,  and  chiefly  in  relative  clauses. — Special  Rules  : 

1.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  substantive  dependent 
clauses  after  verbs  which  express  will,  purpose,  desire, 
command,  forbidding,  or  any  idea  which  throws  uncer- 
tainty over  the  action  of  the  dependent  verb  : 

J'ordonne  qu'il  aille.    I  order  him  to  go. 

Que  voulez-vous  que  je  sache  ?     What  do  you  wish  me  to  know  ? 

Je  defends  qu'on  prenne  les  armes.     I  forbid  them  to  take  arms. 

Prends  garde  qu'on  ne  te  vole.     Take  care  they  don't  see  you. 

Tl  faudrait  attendre  que  les  peres  des  victimes  fussent  morts. 
It  would  have  been  necessary  to  wait  until  the  fathers  of  the  victims 
should  be  dead. 

Exception. — Verbs  of  this  class  may  be  followed  by  the 
Indicative  to  imply  an  assertion  of  fact  or  of  certainty  : 


114  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

Ordonna  que  chacun  regnerait  son  annee  (Racine).  He  ordered 
that  eacli  should  reign  his  year. 

Le  tribunal  a  decide  que  la  donation  etait  nuUe  (Academy).  The 
court  decided  that  the  donation  was  null. 

Prenez  garde  que  I'auteur  ne  dit  pas  ce  que,  &c.  Take  care  the 
author  does  not  say  that  which,  &c. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  substantive  clauses  de- 
pendent on  expressions  of  mental  state  or  action,  such  as 
knowing,  forgetting,  being  ignorant,  hoping,  fearing,  com- 
plaining, being  sorry  or  angry,  &c. : 

Je  m'etonne  qu'il  ne  voie  le  danger  ou  il  est  (Acad.).  I  am  as- 
tonished that  he  does  not  see  the  danger  he  is  in. 

Nous  sommes  heureux  qu'il  n'en  ait  rien  su  (Acad.).  We  are 
glad  that  hejoiew  nothing  about  it. 

II  se  plaint  qu'on  I'ait  calomnie  (Acad.).  He  complains  that  he 
has  been  slandered. 

On  pensait  que  ce  fussent  des  Bohemes  (Sevigne).  It  was 
thought  that  they  were  some  Bohemians. 

Supposons  que  notre  histoire  generale  fut  a  composer  (Chateau- 
briand).    Suppose  our  general  history  were  still  to  be  composed. 

N'esperez  plus  alors  que  I'on  vienne  a  votre  aide.  Do  not  hope 
then  any  longer  that  any  one  will  come  to  your  aid. 

J'ignorais  qu'elle  fut  comedienne  (Lesage). 

Voit-on  a  mes  yeux  que  j'aie  pleure  ? 

Exception. — The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  after  such 
phrases,  to  express  an  assertion  of  positive  fact  on  the 
part  of  the  speaker  ; 

Claire  se  plaignait  de  ce  qu'on  I'avait  appele  par  son  nom. 

Claire  complained  that  they  called  her  by  her  name. 

Je  suppose  qu'un  moine  est  charitable  (La  Fontaine).  I  take  for 
granted  that  a  monk  is  (of  course)  charitable.     (Ironical.) 

Ne  vols  tu  pas  que  I'escalier  est  rompu  ?  Do  you  not  see  that 
the  staircase  is  broken  ? 

Si  I'on  savait  mdme  que  tu  as  parle  pour  lui.  If  he  only  knew 
that  you  have  spoken  for  him. 

3.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  a  substantive  clause  which 
is  the  subject  of  a  verb  used  impersonally,  like  il  faut ;  il 


USE   OF   THE   MODES.  115 

suffit,  ^it  is  enough  ;'  il  semble,  'it  seems  ;'  il  est  faux,  'it 
is  false  ; '  c'est  dommage,  '  it  is  a  pity/  &c.  : 

II  importe  que  vous  y  soyez.  It  is  important  for  you  to  be 
there. 

II  etait  naturel  que  le  pouvoir  se  concentrat.  It  was  natural 
tliat  power  should  concentrate. 

C'est  heureux  qu'il  fasse  nuit  (Dumas).  It  is  lucky  that  it  is  be- 
coming night. 

Mieux  vaudrait  que  le  soleil  perdit  ses  rayons,  &c.  It  would 
be  better  that  the  sun  should  lose  his  rays. 

4.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  temporal  clauses,  that  is, 
adverbial  clauses  denoting  time,  after  avant  que,  '  before  ; ' 
en  attendant  que,  '  whilst ; '  jusqu'a  ce  que,  '  until ; '  tant 
que,  '  insomuch  that,'  &c.  ; 

Avant  qu'il  soit  neuf  mois,  &c. ,  before  nine  months. 

En  attendant  que  les  nouvelles  levees  se  formasseni.  Whilst 
the  new  levies  were  forming. 

Des  fosses  profondes,  ou  Ton  precipite,&c.,  jusqu'a  ce  qu'elles 
soient  remplies. 

Exception. — Sometimes  the  Indicative  is  used  in  tem- 
poral clauses,  to  give  positiveness  to  the  assertion  in  the 
dependent  verb: 

Lucain  fut  d'abord  ami  de  Neron,  Jusqu'a  ce  qu'il  eut  la  noble 
imprudence  de  disputer  centre  lui  le  prix  de  poesie  (Voltaire). 

5.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  causal,  conditional,  con- 
cessive, consecutive  (expressing  result),  and  final  (ex- 
pressing purpose)  clauses  ;  that  is,  in  adverbial  clauses  ex- 
pressing cause,  or  with  pos6  que,  'granted  that;'  en  cas 
que,  '  in  case  that ; '  pourvu  que,  '  provided  ; '  bien  que, 
quoique,  ^  although  ; '  soit  que,  ^  whether  ; '  si  que,  ^  so  ; '  qui 
que,  quel  que,  '  whoever  ; '  de  sorte  que,  de  manidre  que,  '  in 
such  a  way  that ; '  pour  que,  *  in  order  that ; '  sans  que, 
'  unless  ; '  &c.,  or  que  used  in  place  of  any  of  these  : 

Ce  n'est  pas  que  nous  eussions  de  voix  fort  agreables,  mais,  &c. 
(Le  Sage).     It  was  not  because  we  had  very  agreeable  voices,  but — . 


116  FREKCH   GRAMMAR. 

Je  ne  me  serais  console  si  monsieur  le  comte  eiit  succombe. 
I  should  have  been  inconsolable  if  the  Count  had  fallen. 

Mais  que  Moliere  eiit  traite  ce  sujet,  &c.,  but  if  Moliere  had 
treated  this  subject,  &c. 

Pose  le  cas  que  cela  fM,  que  feriez-vous?  (Acad.).  Granting 
that  this  were  the  case,  what  would  you  do  ? 

Pourvu  qu'il  y  eut  un  fait  vrai  ou  faux  a  raconter,  que  ce  fait 
pflErit  un,  grand  spectacle,  cela  leur  suffisait  (Chateaubr.).  If  only 
4^-hftd  something,  true  or  false,  to  tell,  and  it  made  a  fine  show,  that 
was  enough  for  them. 

II  fait  bon  craindre,  encore  que  Ton  soit  saint  (La  Fontaine).  It 
is  well  to  fear,  although  one  is  holy. 

Soit  qu'il  ait  de  I'appetit  ou  qu'il  n'en  ait  pas,  il  croit  toujours 
qu'il  est  malade.  Whether  he  has  any  appetite  or  not,  he  always 
thinks  he  is  sick. 

Quelque  puissants  qu'ils  soient,  je  ne  les  crains  point  (Acad.). 
However  powerful  they  may  be,  I  do  not  fear  them  at  all. 

Tout  auteur  que  je  sois,  je  ne  suis  pas  jaloux.  Author  though  I 
be,  I  am  not  jealous. 

Quel  qu'il  soit,  nul  rempart  ne  le  peut  proteger.  Whoever  he 
may  be,  no  rampart  will  protect  him. 

Vous  n'^tes  pas  si  bas  que  vous  ne  puissiez  vous  relever  (Le 
Sage).     You  are  not  so  low  that  you  cannot  rise. 

Le  mal  fut  assez  grand  pour  que  .  .  .  il  fit  epoque  (Segur).  The 
misfortune  was  so  great  as  to  make  an  epoch. 

lis  ne  voulurent  point  le  quitter  qu'ils  ne  I'eussent  tire  de  la 
Russie,  et  qu'il  fdt  en  surete  (Segur).  They  were  not  willing  to 
leave  him  until  they  had  taken  him  out  of  Russia,  and  he  was  in 
safety. 

Pour  qu'une  innovation  soit  pacifique,  il  faut,  &c.  (Mignet).  For 
an  innovation  to  be  peaceful,  it  is  necessary,  &c. 

Exception. — The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  such 
clauses  to  express  a  positive  assertion  of  the  fact  contained 
in  the  dependent  chiuse  : 

Bien  entendu  que  vous  ferez  ce  que  je  vous  demande  (Acad.). 
It  being  well  understood  that  you  will  do  what  I  ask  of  you. 

Tout  casse  que  je  suis,  je  cours  toute  la  ville  (Corneille).  All 
injured  as  I  am  I  run  through  all  the  city. 

Combien  que  les  malhonn&tes  gens  prosperent,  &c.  However 
dishonest  men  may  prosper  (and  they  do),  &c. 


USE   OF  THE   MODES.  11? 

6.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  adjective  dependent 
clauses  ;  that  is,  after  a  relative,  a  superlative,  a  negative, 
or  such  a  phrase  as  le  seul,  Tunique,  '  the  only ; '  le  pre- 
mier, '  the  first : '  le  dernier, '  the  last ; '  il  n'y  a  que,  '  there 
is  only,'  &c. : 

Je  voudrsds  inventer  quelque  petit  cadeau,  qui  coiitat  peu  d'ar- 
gent,  et  qui  pariit  nouveau  (Regnard).  I  would  like  to  find  some 
little  present,  whicli  would  cost  but  little,  and  appear  new. 

Montrez-moi  des  heros  que  je  puisse  honorer.  Show  me  heroes 
whom  I  can  honor. 

Reprends  des  sentimens  qui  soient  dignes  de  toi.  Take  again 
sentiments  worthy  of  yourself. 

.  Le  meilleur  usage  qu'on  puisse  faire,  the  best  use  that  one  could 
make. 

II  est  peu  d'hommes  qui  sachent  veritablement  aimer  (Stael). 
Few  men  know  truly  how  to  love. 

Neron  est  le  premier  empereur  qui  ait  persecute  I'eglise  (Bos- 
suet).     Nero  was  the  first  emperor  to  persecute  the  church. 

Qu'est  il  arrive  qui  puisse  voua  degager  de  Tobeissance  ?  What 
has  happened  that  could  release  you  from  obedience? 

A  quoi  sert  d'avoir  un  rois  qui  sache  bien  ?  &c.  What  use  to 
have  a  king  who  knows  well  how  to  1  &c. 

Quel  que  fAt  le  nombre  d'iuvitations  qui  put  lui  arriver. 

Exception.  —  The  Indicative  is  frequently  used  after 
superlatives  and  the  like,  and  rarely  in  other  adjective 
clauses : 

C'est  le  moindre  secret  qu'il  pouvait,  &c.  It  is  the  smallest 
secret  which  he  could,  &c. 

O'etait  la  plus  intrepide  menteuse  que  j'ai  connue.  She  was 
the  boldest  liar  I  ever  knew. 

II  n'y  eut  que  moi  qui  esperai  la  victoire  (Fenelon).  I  alone 
expected  victory. 

181.  Use  of  the  Infinitive  (alone). — The  Infinitive  is 
really  a  verbal  noun,  and  as  such  is  used  as  subject,  pre- 
dicate, object,  or  in  apposition,  &c. : 

1.  The  Infinitive  is  used  as  subject  or  as  predicate,  or 
in  apposition: 


118  FRE^N^Cn    GEAMMAR. 

S'etonner  est  du  peuple,  admirer  est  du  sage.  To  be  astonished 
belongs  to  tbe  people,  to  admire  to  the  wise. 

Vous  entendre  louer  me  rend  heureux  et  fiere.  To  hear  you 
praised  makes  me  happy  and  proud. 

II  faut  ^tre  utile  aux  hommes,  pour  ^tre  grand  a  leurs  yeux 
(Massillon).     One  must  be  useful  to  men  to  be  great  in  their  eyes. 

II  me  semble  avoir  vu  remuer  cette  porte  (Dumas).  It  seems  to 
me  I  saw  that  door  move. 

A  la  fin  c'est  parler.     After  all,  it  is  to  speak. 

Cette  dignite  qui  parait  venir  avec  la  puissance.  That  dignity 
which  seems  to  come  with  power. 

II  n'y  a  pour  Thomme  que  trois  evenemens,  naitre,  vivre,  et 
mourir  (La  Bruyere).  There  are  for  man  but  three  events,  to  be 
bom,  live,  and  die. 

2.  The  Infinitive  is  used  as  direct  object  only  after 
verbs  of  sensation  or  mental  state  or  action,  including 
dire,  '  to  tell ; '  faire,  '  to  cause  ; '  laisser,  '  to  permit ; ' 
devoir,  *  to  be  under  obligation  ; '  6crire,  '  to  write  ; ' 
pouvoir,  *  to  be  able  ; '  oser,  *  to  dare,'  and  the  like: 

Oe  que  j'avais  oui  dire.    What  I  had  heard  said. 

Chacun  pense  voir  son  image.  Each  one  thinks  he  sees  his 
image. 

Elle  desire  vous  parler.     She  wishes  to  speak  to  you. 

Je  ferai  batir  une  maison.     I  shall  have  a  house  built. 

Je  crois  ^tre  bless e.     I  believe  (myself)  to  be  wounded. 

II  s'imagine  §tre  un  grand  homme.  He  thinks  himself  a  great 
man. 

II  ne  fait  que  jouer.    He  does  nothing  but  play. 

J'ai  manque  me  trahir.    I  was  on  the  point  of  betraying  myself. 

Exceptions. — Verbs  of  desiring,  preferring,  and  hoping 
(excepting  vouloir)  admit  after  them  the  Infinitive  with 
de.  Devoir  in  the  sense  of  '  to  owe  '  regularly  takes  the 
Infinitive  with  de : 

Je  preferais  mourir  que  de  trahir  men  ami. 

Peut-on  esperer  de  vous  revoir  ? 

On  se  doit  a  soi-mSme  de  respecter  les  bienseances. 


USE   OF   THE   MO 


Ex.  2. — Also,  if  an  indirect  object  (Dative  case)  inter- 
venes between  the  Infinitive  and  the  principal  verb,  the 
Infinitive  with  de  is  required  : 

Dites  au  roi,  seigneur,  de  vous  I'abandonner  (Racine).  Tell  tlie 
king,  sir,  to  abandon  him  to  you. 

3.  The  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used  with  a  subject,  de- 
pending on  a  verb  of  the  classes  mentioned  in  2,  like  the 
Latin  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  : 

Nous  I'avons  entendue  parler  (Voltaire).     We  have  heard  him 


Je  sens  des  larmes  baigner  men  visage.  I  feel  tears  bathing  my 
face. 

Cest  ce  qui  le  fait  vivre.    It  is  this  wbich.  makes  Mm  live. 
O  Julie !  si  le  destin  t'eut  laissee  vivre. 

4.  The  Infinitive  is  used  after  verbs  expressing  or  im- 
plying motion,  to  denote  the  purpose  of  the  motion  : 

lis  allerent  demeurer  a  Oviedo.    They  went  to  live  at  Oviedo. 
Elle  a  ete  trouver  le  roi.     She  went  to  find  the  king. 
L'alliance  que  Judas  avait   envoye   demander.     The  alliance 
which  Judas  had  sent  to  ask  for,  etc. 

Exception. — The  verb  venir  in  the  sense  of  '  to  come  to 
be,'  Ho  arrive  at,'  takes  the  Infinitive  with  a: 

Nous  vinmes  a  parler  de  telle  chose  (Acad.).  We  came  to  speak 
(arrived  at  speaking)  of  such  a  thing. 

Si  le  secret  venait  a  6tre  decouvert.  If  the  secret  reached  being 
discovered  (came  to  be). 

5.  The  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used  elliptically  in  ex- 
clamations or  questions  : 

Moi,  vous  abandonner !     I,  to  abandon  you  1 
Comment  decouvrir  le  secret,  how  to  discover  the  secret. 
Pourquoi  toujours  parler,  &c.,  why  always  talk,  &c. 
Ou  done  te  rencontrer,  where  then  to  find  thee  ! 

6.  The  Infinitive  may  be  used  after  any  preposition  ex- 
cept en,  which  requires  the  present  participle  : 


120  FEENCH   GKAMMAR. 

Sans  aller,  without  going. 
Pour  voir,  in  order  to  see. 
Avant  de  partir,  before  going. 
Par  les  detruire,  by  destroying  them. 
En  les  regardant,  in  looking  at  them. 
Note. — For  en  with  the  Participle,  see  Sec.  18^. 

182.  The  Infinitive  with  De. 

1.  The  Infinitive  with  de  is  used  after  verbs,  nouns, 
adjectives,  and  particles,  wherever  a  noun  with  de  (Geni- 
tive case)  might  be  used  in  the  same  way  : 

As-tu  peur  de  mourir  ?    Are  you  afraid  to  die  ? 
Je  suis  siir  de  I'avoir  entendu. 

On  I'accusa  d'avoir  eu  des  intelligences  avec  I'ennemi.     He  was 
accused  of  having  had  communication  with  the  enemy. 
II  n'est  pas  pres  de  finir.     He  is  not  near  finishing. 

2.  The  Infinitive  with  de  is  used  as  the  logical  subject, 
where  the  grammatical  subject  has  been  supplied,  usually 
with  il  or  ce,  before  the  principal  verb  : 

H  est  doux  de  revoir  les  murs  de  la  patrie  (Comeille).  It  is 
sweet  to  see  again  the  walls  of  my  country. 

C'est  bien  mal  d'effrayer  ainsi  ses  amis  (Dumas).  It  is  very 
wrong  thus  to  frighten  his  friends. 

Le  defaut  de  Flechier  est  de  toujours  ecrire,  et  de  ne  jamais 
parler.  Flechier's  fault  is  always  writing,  and  never  speaking. 
(The  usual  form  O'est  le  defaut  de  Flechier  de,  &c.,  explains  this 
last  example.) 

Note. — When  two  infinitives  are  compared  together,  the 
second  takes  de,  the  first  not: 

Plutot  mourir  que  d'etre  esclave  (Acad.).  Sooner  die  than  be  a 
slave. 

So  also  after  comparatives,  and  after  \i  moins  que,  avant  que,  si 
que,  &c.  : 

J'ai  voulu  te  revoir  avant  que  d'expirer. 

A  moins  d'etre  fou,  &c.  (que  omitted),  unless  one  is  a  fool. 

Qui  vous  rend  si  hardi  que  de  m'interroger  ?  What  makes  you 
so  bold  as  to  question  me  ? 


USE  OF  THE  MODES.  121 

3.  The  Infinitive  with  de  is  used  as  the  object  of  transi- 
tive verbs,  either  with  or  without  a  personal  object  : 

II  resolut  de  cultiver  mon  esprit  (Le  Sage).  He  determined  to 
cultivate  my  intellect. 

On  craint  de  se  montrer.    One  fears  to  show  himself. 
Adele  lui  demand e  de  revenir  souvent. 

Note. — Verbs  of  sensation  and  mental  state  or  action,  &c.,  as  de- 
scribed in  Sec.  181,  take  the  Infinitive  without  de,  and  some  verbs 
require  a,  as  below  : 

4.  The  Infinitive  with  de  is  sometimes  used  elliptically 
to  introduce  a  subject,  or  like  the  Latin  historical  Infini- 
tive : 

De  recourir  a  Blanche,  to  return  to  Blanche. 
Chaque  electeur  alors  de  dire :  O'est  vrai.    Each  voter  then 
said,  "It  is  true." 

183.  The  Infinitive  with  A. 

1.  The  Infinitive  with  k  is  used  after  a  verb  to  denote  the 
purpose,  manner,  instrument,  condition,  cause,  &c.,  of  the 
action  of  the  principal  verb  : 

Aidez-moi  a  oublier  que  je  suis  roi. 

Tu  vas  passer  encore  une  nuit  a  travailler  (Dumas).  You  will 
pass  still  one  night  in  labor. 

lis  n'ont  rien  a  gagner.    They  have  nothing  to  gain. 

A  vous  entendre,  on  croit  que  vous  avez  raison.  To  hear  you, 
one  would  suppose  you  were  right. 

Oette  f^te,  a  vrai  dire,  &c.,  this  festival,  to  tell  the  truth. 

2.  The  Infinitive  with  a  is  sometimes  used  like  a  gerund, 
either  attributively  or  predicatively,  to  denote  obligation 
or  possibility  : 

Une  trone  n'est  pas  a  dedaigner.    A  throne  is  not  to  be  despised. 
II  restait  a  sauver  quatre  mille  habitans.     It  remained  to  save 
4000  inhabitants. 

O'est  un  proces  a  ne  jamais  finir  (Acad.).     It  is  an  unending  pro- 

6 


122  FEEKCH   GRAMMAR. 

Un  sourire  a  glacer  I'improvisateur.  A  smile  fit  to  freeze  tlio 
improviser. 

Facile  a  remarquer,  easy  to  notice  (be  noticed). 
Impossible  a  passer,  impossible  to  pass  (be  passed). 
Aise  a  trouver,  easy  to  find  (be  found). 

3.  The  Infinitive  with  a  is  used  after  some  transitive 
verbs,  for  the  most  part  the  same  which  in  Latin  take  the 
Infinitive,  viz. :  verbs  of  giving,  having,  seeking,  finding, 
teaching,  learning,  forgetting,  preparing,  t^^inning,  end- 
ing, longing,  loving,  and  the  like  : 

J'ai  a  faire  une  visite.     I  have  a  call  to  make. 
II  y  a  tout  a  esperer.     There  is  everything  to  hope. 
II  est  a  croire.    It  is  credible. 
Ohercher  a  se  rappeler,  to  try  to  remember. 
Je  commence  deja  a  parler  Fran9ais.   I  am  already  beginning  to 
speak  French. 

Oublier  a  chanter,  to  forget  how  to  sing. 
(Oublier  chanter  means  '  to  forget  to  sing  *). 
Enseigner  a  lire,  to  teach  how  to  read. 

184,  The  Infinitive  with  A  or  De. — In  some  cases  the  In- 
finitive may  be  nsed  with  either  a  or  de,  but  with  a  differ- 
ence of  meaning : 

Manquer  a  faire,  to  neglect  to  do. 

Msmquer  de  faire,  to  come  near  doing. 

S'il  venait  a  apprendre,  if  he  happened  to  learn. 

lis  viennent  de  sortir,  they  have  just  gone  out. 

O'est  a  yous  a  parler,  it  is  your  turn  to  speak. 

Cast  a  vous  de  parler,  it  is  your  duty  to  speak. 

Note. — The  Infinitive  may  be  used  with  either  a  or  de  without 
change  of  meaning,  after  a  few  verbs  : 

n  ne  demande  qu'a  manger  et  a  boire. 

Elle  demanda  au  ciel  de  lui  pardonner  sa  faute. 

Le  banquier  s'engagea  a  (or  de)  payer  la  somme  de  1000  francs. 


THE   PKESEN^T  PARTICIPLE.  123 

THE    PRESENT    PARTICIPLE, 

185.  The  Present  Participle  is  really  a  gerund  in  its  na- 
ture, and  is  usually  indeclinable  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  verbal  adjective,  agreeing  in  gender  and  number  witli 
its  noun.  The  verbal  noun  is  in  French  not  the  partici- 
ple but  the  Infinitive. 

1.  The  Present  Participle  when  used  like  a  gerund  is 
invariable  : 

Amitie,  triomphant  a  son  tour,  friendship  conquering  in  its  turn. 

Les  animaux,  vivant  d'une  maniere  plus  conforme  a  la  nature 
(Rousseau),  the  animals,  living  in  a  manner  nearer  to  nature. 

O'est  que  nous  ne  pouvions  savoir,  etant  sans  pilote,  et  ne  pou- 
vant  voir  les  bancs,  &c.  (Segur). 

die  nous  faisait  signe,  comme  nous  disant  un  etemel  adieu 
(St. -Pierre). 

2.  The  Present  Participle  may  be  used  with  a  noun,  ab- 
solutely ;  like  the  Latin  Ablative  Absolute  : 

Le  cas  echeant,  je  suis,  &c.,  it  happening  so,  I  am,  &c. 
Les  Romjiins,  se  destinant  a  la  guerre,  et  la  regardant  comme  le 
seul  art,  &c.  (Montesquieu). 

3.  The  Present  Participle  is  often  used  with  the  Pre- 
position en,  to  denote  that  two  events  occur  at  the  same 
time  : 

II  riait  en  me  regardant  (Fenelon).  He  looked  at  me  and 
laughed. 

On  hasarde  de  perdre  en  voulant  trop  gagner.  One  risks  losing 
when  he  tries  to  get  too  much. 

Ij'appetit  vient  toujours  en  mangeant.  The  appetite  grows  while 
eating. 

En  disant  ces  mots,  les  larmes  lui  vinrent  aux  yeux  (Fenelon). 
As  he  said  these  words,  the  tears,  &c. 

En  rentrant  chez  moi,  as  I  re-entered  my  house,  &c. 

Note. — A  construction  derived  from  the  Latin  *  in '  with  a  gerund. 

4.  The  Present  Participle  nsed  adjectively  agrees  in 
gender  and  number  with  its  noun  : 


124  FEEN^CH   GEAMMAR. 

EUe  parait  souflfraate.     She  appeared  to  suiEer. 
II  m'offrit  una  main  fumante  de  sang  (Voltaire).     He  oUered  me 
a  liand  smoking  with,  blood. 

Note. — The  Participle  may  be  invariable  even  in  such 
cases,  in  order  to  make  the  idea  of  action  more  promi- 
nent : 

Tu  foules  une  terre  toujours  fumant  du  sang.  You  tread  a  soil 
that  always  smokes  with  blood. 

Une  fen^tre  donnant  sior  une  petit^ue  (Dumas).  A  window  that 
looks  upon  a  narrow  street. 

5.  The  Adjective-Participle  may,  like  any  other  adjec- 
tive, be  used  as  a  noun  : 

Les  mourants,  the  dying. 

Une  intriguante,  a  female  intriguer. 

Les  habitants,  the  inhabitants  (dwellers). 

THE    PERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

186.  The  Perfect  Participle  is  used  adjectively,  or  ab- 
solutely, or  as  a  part  of  the  compound  tenses  of  the  verb. 

1.  The  Perfect  Participle  used  absolutely  (like  the 
Latin  Ablative  Absolute),  is  placed  with  its  subject  in  the 
Objective  (Accusative)  case,  and  agrees  with  its  subject  in 
number  and  gender  : 

Eux  punis,  nous  pourrons,  &c.,  they  being  punished,  we  might 
be  able. 

II  ne  sera  pas  dit  que,  moi  parti,  vous  rirez  de  la  dupe  que  vous 
venez  de  faire  (Dumas).  It  shall  not  be  said  that,  when  I  am  gone, 
you  laugh  at  the  dupe  you  have  just  made. 

La  constitution  etant  achevee  (Thiers),  the  constitution  being 
finished. 

Note. — Sometimes  the  noun  is  omitted,  and  must  be  supplied  from 
the  context,  the  Participle  standing  absolute,  alone  : 

Arrives  a  ce  point  (Dumas),  having  come  to  this  point. 
Accoutumes  a  tout  ce  que  (Massillon),  accustomed,  &c. 

2.  The  Perfect  Participle  may  be  used  as  an  adjective, 


THE   PERFECT   PARTICIPLE.  125 

either  attributively  or  predicatively,  agreeing  with  its  noun 
in  gender  and  number  : 

La  terre  n'est  couverte  que  de  palais  detruits,  de  tr6nes  ren- 
verses.  The  earth  is  covered  witli  nothing  but  ruined  palaces  and 
overturned  thrones. 

Tenez  toujours  divises  les  mechants  (La  Fontaine).  Keep  the 
rascals  always  divided. 

Je  vols  aux  fiammes  eternelles, 
Nos  rois  precipites  sans  fin  (Beranger). 
I  behold  our  kings  ever  plunged  in  endless  flames. 

Note. — This  inchides  the  past  participles  of  all  verbs 
conjugated  with  etre  (passive  and  intransitive),  as  well  as 
all  that  can  have  a  predicate  nominative  after  them.  In 
all  these  the  Perfect  Participle  may  be  considered  as  used 
like  an  adjective  used  predicatively. 

Exception. — The  participles  attendu,  *  whereas  *  (*  expected ') ; 
compris,  '  included  ; '  excepte,  *  except ; '  oui,  *  heard/  *  said  ;  *  passe, 
*  past ; '  suppose,  *  supposed  ; '  vu,  '  examined/  '  seen  ; '  ci-joint,  *  an- 
nexed ; '  ci-inclus,  '  enclosed/  are  used  as  adjectives  with  a  peculiar 
agreement.  When  they  precede  the  noun  to  which  they  belong 
they  are  indeclinable,  when  they  are  placed  after  the  noun  they 
agree  with  it : 

Vous  trouverez  ci-joint  copie  du  contrat. 
Mes  amis  exceptes.    Excepte  mes  amis. 
But,  ci-joint  and  ci-inclus  agree  with  a  following  noun,  if  an  arti- 
cle intervenes  : 

Vous  trouverez  ci-incluse  la  copie  du  contrat  (Academy). 

3.  The  Perfect  Participle  agrees  in  number  and  gender 
with  its  object,  when  it  forms  a  part  of  a  compound  tense 
of  a  transitive  or  reflexive  verb  (that  is,  any  verb  which 
can  have  a  direct  object),  if  the  object  precedes  the  Par- 
ticiple : 

La  lettre  que  j'ai  regue,  the  letter  I  received. 
Le  bruit  les  a  tous  attires.    The  noise  attracted  them  all. 
La  fable  que  j'ai  eue  a  composer.    The  story  which  I  had  to 
compose. 


126  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

Que  de  miracles  les  historiens  ont  prodiguees  (Voltaire.)  How 
many  miracles  the  historians  have  lavished  1 

Exceptions. — When  a  verb  is  used  impersonally  tlie  Per- 
fect Participle  always  remains  unchanged.  Also  the  par- 
ticiple 6t6  is  always  invariable  : 

Les  chaleurs  excessives  qu'il  a  fait  (Condillac),  the  excessive 
heat  which  there  has  been. 

Que  de  maux  11  en  est  deja  resulte  !  How  many  evils  have 
already  resulted  from  it. 

Note. — A  noun  used  absolutely  to  denote  time,  &c.  (Ac- 
cusative of  time,  &c.),  is  of  course  not  the  direct  object, 
and  the  Participle  does  not  agree  with  it  : 

Les  nombreuses  annees  que  j'ai  vecu  (Rousseau),  the  many  years 
I  have  lived. 

La  peine  que  ce  travail  m'a  coiite  (Academy),  the  trouble  which 

this  work  cost  me. 

Exception. — The  Participle  is  sometimes  attracted  into  agreement 
with  a  noun  dependent  on  the  direct  object,  when  the  latter  is  a 
noun  of  quantity  : 

Le  peu  de  legons  que  j'ai  prises  ont  suffi  (Academy).  The  few 
lessons  I  took  were  enough. 

But  compare  :  Le  peu  de  diligence  qu'il  a  mis  dans  la  conduito 
de  cette  affaire  (Academy).  The  little  diligence  (lack  of  diligence), 
&c.  Here  if  the  Participle  were  in  agreement  the  meaning  would  be 
changed. 

4.  In  all  other  cases  the  Participle  is  invariable,  viz.: 
when  the  object  follows  the  verb,  the  parts  of  the  verb 
being  thrown  together  ;  or  when  there  is  no  direct  object: 

J'ai  perdu  mes  livres.    I  have  lost  my  books. 

lis  se  sent  ecrit  deux  lettres.  They  wrote  each  other  two  letters. 

Note. — The  following  cases  of  the  absence  of  a  direct 
object  may  need  remark. 

(1.)  When  the  object  of  the  compound  tense  is  an  In- 
finitive : 


THE   ADVERB.  127 

Elle  s'est  fait  aimer,  elle  m'a  fait  hair  (Corneille).  She  made 
(people)  love  lier,  slie  made  (them)  hate  me. 

Tous  las  soldats  s'etaient  Izdsse  prendre  (Voltaire).  All  the  sol- 
diers let  (them)  take  them  (themselves  to  be  taken). 

La  verite  qu'il  a  neglige  de  suivre  (Fenelon).  The  truth  which 
he  has  omitted  following. 

Compare  Je  les  ai  vu  frapper,  I  saw  (some  one)  strike  them 
(saw  them  struck),  with  Je  les  ai  vues  frapper,  I  saw  them  strike 
(some  one  else). 

(2.)  When  the  adverb  en,  in  a  partitive  sense,  intervenes, 
implying  the  real  object : 

Avez-vous  des  fleurs  ?    Oui,  il  nous  en  a  donne. 

Here  no  direct  object  is  expressed. 

Sometimes,  however,  even  though  en  intervenes,  the  Participle 
agrees  with  the  real  object,  to  avoid  ambiguity  : 

Li' usage  des  cloches  est  de  la  plus  haute  antiquite  ;  nous  n'en 
avons  eues  en  France  qu'au  sixieme  siecle  (Voltaire). 

Here  if  eues  were  not  in  agreement,  the"  object  might  be  thought 
to  be  usage,  and  not  cloches. 

(3. )  When  the  apparent  object  is  really  a  noun  (Accu- 
sative) of  time,  space,  price,  &c.    See  above,  3,  Note. 

(4.)  When  the  Participle  is  followed  by  an  Infinitive 
with  a,  it  may  either  agree  or  not  agree  with  the  object, 
if  there  is  one  : 

La  fable  que  j'ai  eue  a  composer. 
Les  peines  qu'ils  ont  eu  a  souffrir. 

5.  Compound  Participles  require  no  special  attention, 
being  treated  like  Perfect  Participles. 

THE   ADVERB. 

187.  Adverbs  are,  in  general,  formed  from  adjectives, 
as  follows  : 

1.  Adjectives  ending  in  a  vowel  form  adverbs  by  adding 
-ment : 


128 


FUEI^CH   GEAMMAR. 


aise,  easy, 

poll,  polished,  smootli, 
absolu,  absolute, 
sage,  wise. 


aisement,  easily, 
poliment,  smootlily. 
absolument,  absolutely, 
sagement,  wisely. 


Except — beau,  nouveau,  fou,  and  mou,  wbich  make  bellement, 
nouvellement,  &c. ,  according  to  the  rule  following,  and  traitre,  which 
has  traitreusement. 

2.  Adjectives  ending  in  a  consonant  form  adverbs  by 
adding  -ment  to  the  feminine  form  : 

franc,  free,  franchement,  freely, 

vif,  quick,  vivement,  quickly, 

leger,  light,  legerement,  lightly. 

Except — gentil,  pretty,  gentiment ;  gros,  coarse,  grossierement. 

3.  The  following  adjectives  form  adverbs  by  changing 
final  e  into  6,  and  adding  -ment : 


aveugle, 

blind. 

aveuglement. 

commode, 

convenient. 

commodement. 

conformej 

conformable. 

conformement. 

confus. 

confused. 

confus  ement. 

diffus. 

diffused, 

diffusement. 

enorme. 

enormous. 

enormement. 

expres. 

express. 

express  ement. 

immense. 

immense. 

immens  ement. 

importim, 

importunate. 

importunement. 

obscur. 

obscure, 

obscure  ment. 

opiniatre, 

obstinate. 

opiniatrement. 

precis. 

precise, 

precisement. 

profond, 

profound. 

profondement. 

profus, 

profuse. 

profusement. 

uniforme. 

uniform. 

uniformement. 

by  this  analogy. 

impuni, 

unpunished. 

impunement. 

4.  Adjectives  in  -ant  and  -ent  drop  the  t  and  assimilate 
the  n  to  the  m  of  the  ending  : 

prudent,  prudent,  prudemment. 

elegant,  elegant,  elegamment. 

eloquent,  eloquent,  eloquemment. 


THE   ADVERB. 


129 


Except — ^lent,  slow,   lentement  j    vehement,  veliement,  vehe- 
mentement. 

188.  Many  Adverbs  are  not  formed  from  adjectives  : 


diablement, 

betement, 

profuse  ment, 

incessament, 

ailleurs, 

souvent, 

encore, 

longtemps, 

alors, 

enfin, 

partout, 

depuis, 

derriere, 

desormais, 

dorenavant, 

ensemble, 

ici, 

jadis, 

deja, 


like  the  devil, 

stupidly, 

profusely, 

incessantly, 

elsewhere, 

often, 

more, 

long  since, 

then, 

at  last, 

everywhere, 

afterwards, 

back, 

henceforth, 

henceforth, 

together, 

here, 

formerly, 

already. 


from  diable). 
from  b^te). 
as  if  from  profus). 
cesser,  *  to  stop '). 
Lat.,  aliorsum). 
"    subinde). 
hanc  horam). 
longum  tempus). 
ad  illam  horam). 
in  fine). 
'    per  totum). 
■    de  post). 
'    de  retro). 

de  ipsa  hora  magis). 
de  hora  in  ab  ante). 
'    in  simul). 
'    ecce  hie). 
'    jam  diu). 
'    jam). 


189.  Some  Adjectives  are  used  as  adverbs  without  any 
change,  as  in  English  : 

vite,  quick-ly. 
haut,  loud-ly. 


droit,  straight-way, 
ferme,  firm-ly. 


fort,  strong-ly. 

bas,  low,  in  a  low  voice. 

juste,  exact-ly. 

cher,  dear,  at  a  high  price. 

mauvais,  bad-ly. 


clair,  cLear-ly. 

190,  Comparison  of  Adverbs. — Those  adverbs  which  are 
capable  of  comparison  are  compared  in  the  same  way  as 
adjectives,  by  the  use  of  plus,  le  plus,  moins,  le  moins,  &c. 

191.  Position  of  Adverbs.— An  adverb  which  qualifies  a 
verb  generally  follows  the  verb  in  simple  tenses,  and  is 
placed  between  the  verb  and  the  participle  in  compound 
tenses  : 

Je  pense  souvent  a  vous.    I  often  think  of  you. 
Je  n'ai  jamais  vu  votre  livre. 

6*  ^ 


130  FRE]!^CH   GRAMMAR. 

Exception. —  Adverbial  phrases,  and  the  adverbs  aujourd'hui, 
*  to-day  ;'  demain,  'to-morrow  ;'  hier,  'yesterday/  are  placed  after 
both  parts  of  a  compound  tense  : 

Je  I'ai  rencontre  par  hasard.     I  met  him  by  chance. 

192.  En,  Y,  Dont,  and  Ou  are  usually  used  for  pronouns, 
and  are  explained  Sec.  130,  f.  As  adverbs  they  need  no 
special  remark. 

NEGATIVES. 

193.  Ne  with  a  Completing  Word. — The  general  negative 
adverb  is  ne ;  but  in  ordinary  sentences  ne  (which  becomes 
n'  before  a  vowel  or  h  mute)  is  followed  by  some  word  to 
complete  or  strengthen  the  negation.  This  completing 
word  may  be  an  adverb,  as  pas  (originally  a  noun  from 
Latin  passus),  point  (Latin  punctum),  gu6re,  *  little'  (from 
grandem  rem),  jamais,  *ever'  (from  jam  magis),  plus, 
*more,'  &c.  ;  or  a  noun,  as  rien,  *a  thing'  (Latin  rem), 
goutte,  ^a  drop,'  mie,  'a  crumb'  (colloquial  only)  ;  or  an 
indefinite  pronoun,  as  personne,  *  any  one,'  aucun,  *  any  one ' 
(Latin  aliquis),  nul,  ^  none,'  quelconque,  Svhosoever,  &c.; 
or  a  conjunction,  as  ni,  *  neither '  (Latin  nee),  que,  *  but, 
only,  unless '  ( Latin  quod)  : 

Le  considat  n'est  point  fait  pour  son  age  (Voltaire).  The  consu- 
late is  not  at  all  made  for  his  age. 

Je  ne  sais  plus.     I  know  no  more.  • 

Elle  n'a  jamais  dit  cela.     She  never  said  that. 

II  ne  prend  aucun  soin  de  ses  affaires  (Academy).  He  takes  no 
care  of  his  business. 

Personne  ne  veut  6tre  plaint  de  ses  erreurs.  No  one  likes  to  be 
complained  to  about  his  errors. 

Elle  n'est  ni  belle  ni  riche.    She  Is  neither  beautiful  nor  rich 

Ni  vous  ni  moi  ne  le  pouvons.    Neither  you  nor  I  can  do  it. 

Je  n'ai  que  deux  soeurs.    I  have  only  two  sisters. 

Nous  n'avions  guere  que  neuf  ans.  We  were  scarcely  nine  years 
old. 

Exception. — The  completing  word  is  very  rarely  omitted  in  ordi 
nary  sentences  : 

II  ne  faut  tenter  Dieu.    You  must  not  tempt  God. 

Oe  n'est  sa  faute,  &c.,  it  is  not  his  fault,  &c. 


NEGATIVES.  131 

Note  1. — ^Pas,  point,  rien,  and  plus  may  be  strengthened 
by  du  tout : 

II  n'aura  rien  du  tout.    He  will  have  nothing  at  all. 

Je  n'y  songe  plus  du  tout.    I  don't  care  any  more  about  it  at  all. 

Note  2. — Sometimes  different  completing  words  are  com- 
bined : 

On  ne  garda  plus  aucunes  mesure.  They  no  longer  kept  any 
bounds. 

Je  n'ai  jamais  rien  accorde  a  la  menace.  I  never  granted  any- 
thing to  threats. 

Note  3. — Two  complete  negatives  make  an  affirmative  : 

Je  ne  puis  point,  a  la  verite,  ne  point  admirer  leur  courage,  mais 
je  ne  puis  (Sec.  194)  aussi  ne  pas  sentir,  &c.,  et  ne  point  hair,  &c. 
(Rollin). 

Note  4. — Non  plus  que,  'no  more  than,'  may  be  used  after 
ne  without  a  completing  word  : 

II  ne  dort  non  plus  que  votre  pere  (Racine).  He  is  not  asleep, 
any  more  than  your  father. 

Vous  ne  le  voulez  pas,  ni  moi  non  plus  (Academy). 
But — Je  n'en  sais  rien,  non  plus  que  vous  (Academy). 

194.  Ne  without  Completing  Word, — In  some  expressions 
ne  is  used  alone  as  the  negative,  and  a  completing  word  is 
not  admitted  : 

1.  Ne  alone  is  used  in  negative  clauses  containing  the 
verbs  pouvoir,  '  to  be  able  ; '  oser,  *  to  dare  ; '  cesser,  '  to 
cease ;'  bouger,  'to  budge  ;'  savoir,  'to  know,'  except  in 
the  sense  of  '  to  understand,'  and  the  phrase  avoir  garde, 
*to  take  care,'  and  the  like  : 

Elle  n'osait  rentrer.    She  did  not  dare  to  enter. 

La  liberte  ne  cesse  d'etre  aimable  (CorneiUe).     Liberty  never 

to  be  lovely. 
Je  ne  saurais  me  taire.    I  should  not  be  able  to  keep  silent. 
II  ne  sait  ce  qu'il  veut.    He  does  not  know  what  he  wants. 
Note. — The  form  peux,  in  the  present  of  pouvoir,  takes  ne-pas. 


132  FREiq^CH   GEAMMAK. 

2.  Ne  alone  is  used  in  negative  rhetorical  questions 
(those  asked  for  confirmation),  and  in  questions  with  que, 
4iow  '  or  *why' : 

Qui  n'a  ses  torts  dans  ce  bas  monde  ?  Who  has  not  his  wrongs 
in  this  world  below  ? 

Qui  ne  sait  son  pouvoir  ?     Who  does  not  know  his  power  ? 
Que  n'attendez  vous  ?     Why  don't  you  pay  attention  ? 
Que  ne  se  corrige-t-il  ?    Why  does  he  not  correct  himself  ? 

3.  Ne  alone  is  used  in  some  colloquial  expressions  and 
some  elliptical  expressions  or  incomplete  sentences  : 

N'importe.    No  matter. 

Je  n'ai  que  faire  a  cela.    I  have  nothing  to  do  with  that. 

A  Dieu  ne  plaise.     God  forbid  1 

Ne  vous  deplaise.    Are  you  willing  ? 

Qu'a  cela  ne  tienne.     Never  mind  1 

N'avoir  d'autre  que,  to  have  no  other  way  but. 

Ne  dire  mot.     Not  to  say  a  word. 

4.  Ne  alone  is  used  in  limiting  clauses  expressing  an 
exception,  introduced  by  si,  'if,'  a  moins  que,  'unless,' 
and  the  like  : 

Je  ne  sortirez  pas  si  vous  ne  me  venez  prendre  en  voiture 
(Academy).  I  will  not  go  out  unless  you  come  to  take  me  in  a  car- 
riage. 

A  moins  que  vous  ne  preniez  bi-en  votre  temps,  &c.  (Academy), 
if  you  do  not  well  choose  your  time. 

Fuis,  si  tu  ne  veux  Stre  attrappe.  Flee,  unless  you  wish  to  be 
taken. 

Si  je  n'etais  moil,  &c.,  if  I  were  not  myself. 

5.  Ne  alone  is  used  in  a  relative  clause  depending  on  a 
negative  proposition,  or  one  which  has  a  negative  effect : 

II  n'y  a  pas  une  de  ces  lettres  dont  je  ne  sache  d'avance  le  oon- 
tenu. 

Est-il  un  seal  de  vous  qui  ne  tremble  pour  lui  ? 

n  est  peu  de  grand  hommes  qui  ne  soient  sensibles  au  plaisirde 
commander.    Few  great  men  {i.  e.,  none)  are  not,  &c. 

195.  Other  Negatives  without  Ne. — The  absolute  negative 


NEGATIVES.  133 

is  non ;  also  many  of  the  completing  words  given  above 
may  stand  alone  without  ne : 

1.  When  the  negative  qualifies  a  single  word,  except  an 
infinitive,  non  is  used.  Non  is  also  the  direct  negative 
answer  to  a  question  : 

Non  loin  de  la  ville,  not  far  from  the  city. 

II  y  a  un  non-moi.     There  is  a  not-me,  non-ego. 

Non  plus  que  moi,  no  more  than  I. 

Non,  monsieur.     No,  sir. 
Exception. — With  the  Infinitive,  ne  pas,  ne  point,  &c. ,  are  used, 
both  words  preceding  it : 

Ne  pas  se  venger,  not  to  avenge  one's  self._ 

Ne  rien  manger,  to  eat  nothing. 
When  the  Infinitive  is  used  in  all  respects  as  a  noun,  this  does  not 
apply. 

2.  To  render  negative  an  incomplete  sentence,  includ- 
ing an  answer  to  a  question  which  is  more  than  a  simple 
negative,  pas,  point,  rien,  jamais,  &c.,  are  used  without  ne: 

Avez-vous  ete  a  Rome  ?    Jamais. 
Etes-vous  fache  ?    Point.    Are  you  angry?    Not  at  all. 
Avez-vous  de  I'argent  ?    Pas  trop.    Have  you  any  money  ?    Not 
too  much. 
Ferez-vous  cela  ?    Du  tout.    Will  you  do  it  ?    Yes,  all  I 
Prendrai-je  cela  ?     Non  pas,  s'il  vous  plait. 
Vous  a-t-il  dit  qui  vous  6tes  ?    Pas  encore.    Not  yet. 

3.  In  exclamations,  questions,  &c.,  which  imply  refer- 
ence to  something  preceding,  ne  is  often  omitted  : 

Rien  de  plus  facile,  nothing  easier. 

Rien  de  Monsieur  le  due  de  Richelieu  ?  Nothing  of  the  Duke 
of  Richelieu? 

Plus  de  my stere !  Plus  de  mariage  secret !  No  more  mystery ! 
No  more  about  a  secret  marriage  ! 

Rien  que  pour  ce  mot-la  vous  meritez,  &c.  (Nothing  but)  for 
that  word  you  deserve,  &c. 

Similarly  : — Les  gens  peu  ou  point  instruits.  Une  perception 
de  Tame  non  point  indecise. 


134  FRENCH  GRAMMAR. 

196.  Peculiar  Use  of  Ne. — The  word  ne  is  used  in  some 
peculiar  expressions  in  which  it  admits  of  no  translation 
into  English,  or  can  only  be  rendered  by  *lest ;'  a  usage 
derived  from  a  similar  use  of  the  Latin  ne  : 

1.  Ne  is  required  after  expressions  of  hindrance,  fear, 
doubt,  danger,  denial,  avoidance,  forbidding,  preventing, 
and  the  like,  in  dependent  clauses  : 

Je  crains  qu'il  ne  vienne.    I  fear  (lest)  he  will  come. 

J'empdcher£U  qu'il  ne  sorte.    I  will  forbid  his  going  out. 

Je  tremble  qu'on  ne  vous  volt.    I  tremble  (lest)  you  may  be  seen. 

II  est  dangereux  que  la  vanite  n'etouflfe  une  partie.  There  is 
danger  (lest)  that  vanity  should  stifle,  &c. 

Prends  garde  qu'on  ne  te  voie.    Take  care  lest  you  are  seen. 

Evitez  qu'il  vous  ne  parle.     Avoid  his  speaking  to  you. 

Je  ne  nie  pas  que  je  ne  I'aie  dit.    I  do  not  deny  that  I  said  it. 

Je  ne  doute  pas  qu'il  ne  vienne.  I  do  not  doubt  that  he  will 
come. 

Ne  desesperez  pas  que  ce  moyen  ne  vous  reussisse.  Do  not  de- 
spair but  this  means  may  succeed  for  you. 

Vous  ne  sauriez  disconvenir  qu'il  ne  vous  ait  parle  (Acad.).  You 
could  not  deny  that  he  has  spoken  to  you. 

Note. — This  rule  includes  expressions  equivalent  to  de- 
nial, though  not  such  in  form,  and  the  rare  phrases  il 
tient  a,  'it  depends  on ;'  and  il  s'en  faut,  'there  is  want- 
ing': 

A  quoi  tient-il  que  nous  ne  partions  (Acad.).  On  what  does  it 
depend  that  we  should  depart  ? 

II  ne  tenait  pas  a  lui  qu'on  n'oubliat  ses  victoires.  It  is  not  his 
fault  if  one  forgets  his  victories. 

Peu  s'en  est  fallu  que  je  ne  vinsse  (Acad.).  It  lacked  but  little 
of  my  coming. 

II  ne  s'en  faut  presque  rien  qu'il  ne  soit  aussi  grand  que  son 
frere.  He  lacks  (it  lacks  to  him)  almost  nothing  of  being  as  tall  as 
his  brother.     (Compare  the  Latin,  non  multum  abest  quin). 

II  etait  impossible  qu'il  n'y  eiit  reussi  (Montesquieu).  It  was 
impossible  that  he  should  succeed. 

Ce  n'est  pas  que  je  ne  convienne,  &c.  It  is  not  because  I  con- 
sent, &c. 


NEGATIVES.  135 

Note  2. — If  pas  is  used  in  expressions  of  fear,  &c.,  the 
meaning  is  reversed  : 

Je  Grains  qu'il  ne  vienne  pas.    I  fear  that  lie  is  not  coming. 

Note  3. — Expressions  of  denial,  doubt,  or  despair  may 
be  used  affirmatively  without  ne.  Negatively  or  interroga- 
tively used  they  require  ne,  and  affirmatively  used  they 
frequently  are  followed  by  it.     See  Ex.  2. 

Exceptions. — An  Infinitive  in  the  dependent  clause  does 
not,  of  course,  require  ne : 

II  craint  d'etre  importun  (Acad.).     He  fears  being  importunate. 

Bientot  ils  defendront  de  donner  ii  Themis  ni  bandeau  ni  ba- 
lance (Boileau).  Soon  they  will  forbid  to  give  to  Justice  either 
bandage  or  scales. 

Sometimes,  however,  ne  is  used  with  a  completing  word  : 

II  lui  defendit  de  ne  jamais  se  presenter  devant  lui.  He  forbade 
him  ever  to  appear  before  him. 

Ex.  2. — Sometimes  ne  is  omitted  after  an  expression  of 
fear  in  a  question  which  implies  a  negative  answer  : 

Peut-on  craindre  que  la  terra  manque  aux  hommes  ?  (Fenelon). 
Can  any  one  fear  that  the  earth  will  not  be  large  enough  for  man  ? 

(No  I) 

Ex.  3. — Sometimes  also  ne  is  omitted  after  expressions 
of  denial  to  denote  an  unquestioned  fact  : 

Personne  ne  nie  qu'il  y  a  un  Dieu.  No  one  denies  that  there  is 
a  God. 

II  n'y  a  pas  de  doute  que  je  lui  conseille,  &c.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  I  advise  him,  &c. 

2.  Ne  is  required  after  il  y  a  que,  depuis  que,  avant  que, 
and  the  like,  denoting  time  in  the  sense  of  *  until '  or 
*  since  ; '  after  k  moins  que,  quoique,  sans  que,  and  the  like, 
in  the  sense  of  *  unless '  or  *  although  ; '  and  after  aucun, 
jamais,  nul,  plus,  nuUement,  rien,  and  the  like,  denoting  a 
universal  negative  statement  : 


136  FEEiq^CH   GRAMMAR. 

Depxiis  que  je  ne  vous  ai  vu.    Since  I  have  seen  you. 

Plus  que  je  ne  devais.     More  than  I  ought. 

Sans  que  son  visage  exprimat,  without  his  face  expressing. 

Nul  ne  peut  etre  heureux.     None  can  be  hajDpy. 

Personne  n'aime  a  recevoir  des  conseils.  No  one  likes  to  re- 
ceive advice. 

II  y  a  six  mois  que  je  ne  lui  parle  pas.  It  is  six  months  since  I 
have  spoken  to  him. 

Je  ne  le  connais  pas  plus  que  vous  ne  le  connaissez  (Acad.).  I 
don't  know  him  any  more  than  you  do. 

Note. — This  use  of  ne  may  be  explained  by  translating  que  sepa- 
rately. *It  is  a  year  that  I  have  not  seen  you,'  &c.  Compare  Sec. 
194,  4. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

197.   Prepositions  govern  Nouns    and    Pronouns,   as  in 

English.     Few  require  special  remark  : 

1.  Many  phrases,  formed  "by  combining  de  or  a  with 
other  words,  are  treated  as  simple  words  and  called  prepo- 
sitions : 

Au  dessus  de,  above.  A  c6te  de,  beside. 

Aupres  de,  near.  Ensuite  de,  after. 

Au  dela  de,  beyond.  Vis-a-vis  de,  opposite. 

2.  Prepositions  are  regularly  repeated  with  each  word 
which  they  govern  : 

Dans  la  paix  et  dans  la  guerre. 

3.  No  preposition  is  used  before  the  day  of  the  week 
or  month,  or  the  hour  of  the  day  : 

n  viendra  jeudi.    He  will  come  Thursday. 

4.  The  preposition  is  also  omitted  often  with  expressions 
of  price  : 

Dix  sous  la  livre.    At  ten  sous  a  pound. 

5.  En  is  used  with  the  Present  Participle  to  denote  a 
close  connection  between  two  events,  and  is  often  best 
translated  by  'whilst/  or  the  like.    See  Sec.  on  Pres.  Part. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  137 

En  creusant  les  fondemens,  on  trouva  un  squelette.  While  dig- 
ging, etc. 

6.  Before  the  name  of  a  country  or  province  en  means 
both  Ho '  and  'in  ; '  before  the  name  of  a  city  or  town  a 
means  both  *  to '  and  Mn '  : 

Elle  est  allee  en  France.    She  is  gone  to  France. 
Avez-vous  des  amis  a  Paris  ?    Have  you  friends  in  Paris  ? 
n  reside  en  Califomie. 

7.  In  the  following  phrases  h,  is  always  used  : 

A  la  campagne,  to  or  in  the  country. 

A  la  chasse,  a-hunting,  to  or  in  the  chase. 

A  I'ecole,  to,  at,  or  in  school. 

A  I'eglise,  to,  at,  or  in  church. 

Au  marche,  to,  at,  or  in  the  market. 

A  la  maison,  home,  or  at  home. 

A  la  p6che,  a-fishing,  to  fish. 

A  la  ville,  to,  at,  or  in  the  city. 

8.  The  agent  of  a  passive  verb  is  generally  expressed 
with  de  or  par,  de  for  mental  actions  or  sentiments,  and 
par  for  outward  actions  : 

II  est  aime  de  tout  le  monde. 
II  fut  tue  par  les  soldats. 

9.  Pour  generally  accompanies  the  Infinitive  denoting 
purpose  : 

Je  suis  venu  pour  vous  voir. 

10.  Chez  with  the  name  of  a  person  or  with  a  personal 
pronoun,  is  used  for  Miome/  'at  home,'  or  'at the  house  of  : 

Monsieur  S.  est  chez  lui.    Mr.  S.  is  at  home. 
Nous  fdmes  chez  Mme.  B.    We  were  at  Mrs.  B.'s. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

198.  Connective  Words  follow,  for  the  most  part,  the 
same  usage  as  the  corresponding  English  words.  A  few 
require  special  notice  : 


138  FKENCH   GRAMMAR. 

1.  Si,  '  if/  elides  its  vowel  only  before  il  and  lis;  it  does 
not  require  the  Subjunctive. 

2.  Que,  *that,'  must  be  repeated  with  each  clause  which 
it  affects,  and  can  never  be  omitted.  It  is  used  in  the  place 
of  other  conjunctions,  even  of  si,  to  avoid  repetition.  Que 
is  also  used  elliptically  in  the  third  person  of  the  Impera- 
tive, and  in  some  common  phrases  : 

Que  le  diable  m'emporte  si,  &c.  May  the  devil  cany  me  off  if, 
&c.  (I  wish  that  he  may). 

Moi,  que  j'eusse  une  ame  si  traitresse !  1 1  (impossible)  that  I 
should  have  a  soul  so  base. 

Je  crois  que  oui.    I  think  (I  will  answer)  yes. 

Je  gage  que  non.    I  wager  (that  it  is)  not. 


CATALOGUE  OF  lEEEGULAR  VERBS. 


CoMPOUN'DS  of  obvious  formation,  like  a-battre,  ad- 
joindre,  ad-mettre,  &c.,  are  nofc  given,  but  the  simple  verbs 
are  found  in  their  places,  battre,  joindre,  &c. 

199. — Irregular,  Defective,  and  Peculiar  Verbs. 
ABSOXJDRE.  *  absolve,'  Lat.  solvere. 
Indic.  Pres.  absous,  absous,  absoUt, 

absolvons,  absolvez,  absolvent 
Fut.    absoudrai.     Pret.  wanting. 
SuBJ.   Pres.  absolve,  absolves,  absolve, 

absolvions,  absolviez,  absolvent. 
Pret.  wanting. 
Part.  Pres.  absolvant;  Perf.  absous,  fern,  absoute. 
S'ABSTENIR,  'abstain/    Like  tenir. 
ABSTRAIRE,  '  abstract.'     Like  traire.     Seldom  used. 
Faire  abstraction  de  is  preferred. 

ACCROtTRE,  increase.'    Like  croitre,  but  Perf.  Part, 
accru  (not  circumflexed). 

ACQTJERIR,  *  acquire  ; '  querir,  Lat.  quaerere. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  acquiers,  acquiers,  acquiert, 

acqu6rons,  acqu6rez,  acquidrent. 
Fut.  acquerrai;  Pret.  acquis. 
SuBJ.   Pres.  acquidre,  acquidres,  acquidre, 

acqu6rions,  acqu6riez,  acquiferent. 
Imperat.       acquiers,  acqu6rez. 
Part.  Pres.  acqu6rant;  Perf.  acquis. 

ALLER,  'go,'  Lat.  aditare,  vadere,  and  ire. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  vais,  vas,  va,  aliens,  allez,  vont. 
Pret.  allai;  Fut.  irai. 
139 


140  FREN^CH   GRAMMAR. 

Sub  J.    Pres.  aille,  allies,  aille,  alliens,  aUiez,  aillent. 

Pret.  allasse. 
Imperat.       va,  aille;  allez,  aillent. 
Part.   Pres.  allant;  Perf.  all6. 

APERCEVOIR,  'perceive.'     See -cevoir. 

APPARTENIR,  '  belong.'     Like  tenir. 

APPRENDRE,  'learn.'     Like  prendre. 

ASSAILLIR,  'assault.' 
Indic.  Pres.,  Subj.  Pres.,  and  Imperat.,  assaille. 
Pret.  assaillis ;  Put.  assaillerai. 

ASSEOIR,  'set,'  s'asseoir,  *  sit,'  Lat.  sedere. 
Indic.  Pres.  assieds,  assieds,  assied, 

asseyons,  asseyez,  asseyent. 
Pret.  assis;  Put.  assierai. 
Subj.    Pres.  asseye;  Pret.  assisse. 
I31PERAT.       assieds,  asseyez. 
Part.  Pres.  asseyant;  Perf.  assis. 

ASTREINLRE,  '  force.'     Like  peindre. 

ATTEINDRE, 'attain.' 

AVOIR,  '  have,'  Lat.  habere. 
Indic.  Pres.  ai,  as,  a,  avons,  avez,  ont. 

Pret.  eus;  Put.  aurai. 
Subj.    Pres.  aie,  aies,  aie,  ayons,  ayez,  aient. 

Pret.  eusse. 
Imperat.       aie,  ayez.     Part.  Pres.  ayant;  Perf.  eu. 

BATTRE,  'beat.' 
Indic.  Pres.  bats,  bats,  bat,  battons,  battez,  battent. 

Pret.  battis;  Fiit.  battrai. 
Subj.    Pres.  batte,  battes,  batte,  battions,  battiez,  &c. 

Pret.  battisse,  battisses,  battlt,  &c. 
Imperat.       bats,  batte,  battez,  battent. 
Part.   Pres.  battant;  Perf.  battu. 


CATALOGUE  OF  IRREGULAE  VERBS.        141 

BENIR,   *  bless.'     Eegular  except  having  two  Perf. 
Part.,  beni,  *  blessed/  and  benit,  *  consecrated.' 

BOIRE,  '  drink/  Lat.  bibere. 
Indic.  Pres.  bois,  bois,  bolt,  buvons,  buvez,  boivent. 

Pret.  bus;  Put.  boirai. 
SuBJ.   Pres.  boive,  boives,  boive,  buvions,  buviez,  boivent. 

Pret.  busse,  busse,  but,  &c. 
Imperat.       bois,  boive,  buvez,  boivent. 
Part,  Pres.  buvant ;  Perf.  bu. 

BOUILLIR,  'boil,'  Lat.  bullire. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  bous,  bous,  bout,  bouillons,  bouillez,  bouillent. 

Pret.  bouillis ;  Put.  bouillerai. 
SuBJ.  Pres.  bouille;  Pret.  bouillisse. 
Imperat.       bouille. 

Part.  Pres.  bouillant ;  Perf.  bouilli.     This  verb  is  neuter. 
The  active  is  faire  bouillir. 

BKAIRE,  'bray.'  Defective.    Used  only  in  Infin.  and 
in  the  3d  Pers. 
Indic.  Pres.  brait,  braient. 

Put.    braira,  brairont. 
CoxDiT.         brairait,  brairaient. 

BRTJIRE,  '  roar.'     Defective.     Used  only  in  the  Infin- 
itive and  the  forms — 

IiTDic.  Pres.  bruit ;  Impf .  bruyait,  bruyaient. 
Part.    Pres.  bruyant.     (Liable  to  be  confused  with  brouir, 
regular. ) 

CEINDRE,  'gird,'  Lat.  cingere.     Like  peindre. 
-CEVOIR.    Verbs  ending  in  -cevoir  are  from  the  Latin 
compounds  of  capere. 

Ij^^dic.  Pres.  -Qois,  -gois,  -^oit,  -cevons,  -cevez,  -goivent. 
Pret.  -Qus,  -9us,  -Qut,  -^umes,  -gutes,  -^urent. 
Put.   -cevrai. 
SuBj.    Pres.  -Qoive,  -^oives,  -goive,  -cevions,  -ceviez,  -^oivent. 
Pret.  -9usse,  -gusses,  -gut,  -gussions,  &c. 


142  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

Imperat.       -goive,  -cevez. 
Part.   Pres.  -cevant;  Perf.  -qu. 

CHOIR,  'fall/  Lat.  cadere.  Nearly  obsolete.  Used 
only  in  Infinitive  and  Perf.  Part,  chu.  The  compounds 
are  less  obsolete. 

CrRCONSCRIRE,  '  circumscribe.'     Like  6crire. 
CmCONVENIR,  *  deceive.'     Like  venir. 
CLORE,  'close/  Lat.  claudere.     Defective. 
Indic.  Pres.  clos,  clos,  clot;  no  plural. 

No  Pret.     Put.  clorai,  &c. ;  Con^dit.  clorais. 
Part.  Perf.  clos.     Other  parts  obsolete. 

CONCLURE,  '  conclude/  compound  of  clore. 
Indic.  Pres.  conclus,  conclus,  conclut, 

concluons,  concluez,  concluent. 
Pret.  conclus,  &c.;  conclumes,  &c. 
SuBj.    Pres.  conclue,  &c. ;  concluions,  &c. ;  Pret.  conclnsse. 
Imperat.       conclus,  conclue,  concluez. 
Part.   Pres.  concluant ;  Perf.  conclu. 
CONCEVOIR,  '  conceive.'    See  -cevoir. 
CONDTJIRE,  'conduct/  Lat.  ducere. 
Indic.  Pres.  conduis,  &c. ;  conduisons,  conduisez,  -sent. 
Pret.  conduisis,  &c.,  conduisimes,  &c. 
Put.    conduirai. 
Sub  J.    Pres.  conduise,  «&c.,  conduisions,  &c. 

Pret.  conduisisse. 
Imperat.       conduis,  conduisez. 
Part.  Pres.  conduisant;  Perf.  conduit. 

CONFIRE,  '  preserve,  pickle.'     Like  lire. 
CONNAITRE,  '  know,'  Lat.  cognoscere. 
Indic.  Pres.  connais,  connais,  connait, 

connaissons,  connaissez,  connaissent. 
Pret.  connus ;  Put.  connaitrai,  &c. 
SuBj.    Pres.  connaisse;  Pret.  connusse. 


CATALOGUE  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS.        143 

Part.  Pres.  connaissant ;  Perf .  connu. 

CONftUERIR,  *  conquer,'  Lat.  conquirere.  Like  acque- 
rir,  but  nearly  obsolete  except  in  Indie.  Pret.,  Subj.  Pret., 
and  Part. 

CONSTRTIIRE,  'construct.'    Like  conduire. 

CONTRAINDRE,  'constrain/  Lat.  constringere. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  contrains,  &c.,  like  peindre.     See  Sec.  153. 

CONTREDIRE,  '  contradict.'     Like  d6dire. 

COTJDRE,  'sew,'  Lat.  consuere. 
Indic.  Pres.  couds,  couds,  coud,  cousons,  cousez,  cousent. 

Pret.  cousis;  Put.  coudrai. 
Subj.    Pres.  couse;  Pret.  cousisse. 
Imperat.       couds,  cousez. 
Part.   Pres.  cousant ;  Perf.  cousu. 

COTJRIR,  'run,'  Lat.  currere. 
Indic.  Pres.  conrs,  cours,  court,  courons,  courez,  courent. 

Pret.  courus;  Put.  courrai. 
Subj.    Pres.  coure  ;  Pret.  courusse. 
Imperat.       cours,  courez. 
Part.  Pres.  courant;  Perf.  couru. 

COUVRIR,  '  cover,'  Lat.  co-operire.     Like  ouvrir. 

CRAINDRE,  'fear,'  Lat.  tremere.     Like  peindre. 

CROIRE,  '  believe,'  Lat.  credere. 
Ii^Dic.  Pres.  crois,  crois,  croit,  croyons,  croyez,  croient. 

Pret.  crus;  Imperf.  croyais;  Put.  croirai. 
Subj.   Pres.  croie,  &c.,  croyions,  &c.;  Pret.  crusse. 
Imperat.       crois,  croyez. 
Part.    Pres.  croyant;  Perf.  cru. 

CROITRE,  'grow,'  Lat.  crescere. 
In^dic.  Pres.  crois,  crois,  croit,  croissons,  croissez,  croissent 
Pret.  crus,  crus,  crut,  crumes,  crutes,  crurent. 
Put.    croirai. 
Subj.    Pres.  croisse ;  Pret.  crusse,  or  crusse. 


144  FEENCH   GEAMMAR. 

Impeeat.       crois,  croissez. 

Paet.  Pres.  -croissant ;  Perf .  crii,  crue,  or  cme. 

CUEILLIR,  'pluck/  Lat.  colligere. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  cueiUe,  cueilles,  cueille,  cueillons,  &c, 

Pret.  cueillis;  Put.  cueillerai. 
Sub  J.    Pres.  cueille ;  Pret.  cueillisse. 
Impeeat.       cueille,  cuiellez. 
Paet.   Pres.  cueillant;  Perf.  cueilli 

CXJIRE,  *  cook,'  Lat.  coquere.    Like  nuire. 

DECEVOIR.     See  -cevoir. 

DECHOIR,  *  decay/  compound  of  choir.     Defective. 
In  DIG.  Pres.  d6chois,  d6chois,  d6clioit,  d^choyons,  -ez,  -oient, 

Pret.  dechus ;  Put.  d6cherrai ;  Imperf.  wanting. 
SuBJ.    Pres.  d6choie;  Pret.  d6cliusse. 
Impeeat.  wanting ;  Paet.  Pres.  wanting  ;  Perf.  d6cliu. 

DEDIRE,  '  disown/  compound  of  dire.  Like  dire,  ex- 
cept in  Pres.  Indie,  and  Imperat.,  which  are  d6disez  (not 
d6dites). 

DETRTJIRE,  '  destroy/ Lat.  de-struere.   Like  conduire. 

DEVOIR,  'owe/  Lat.  debere. 
Indic.  Pres.  dois,  dois,  doit,  devons,  devez,  doivent.  * 

Pret.  dus;  Put.  devrai. 
SuBJ.   Pres.  doive ;  Pret.  dusse.     Impeeat.  dois,  devez. 
Paet.  Pres.  devant ;  Perf.  du. 

DIRE,  'say/  Lat.  dicere. 
Indic.  Pres.  dis,  dis,  dit,  disons,  disez,  dites. 

Pret.  dis ;  Put.  dirai.     Impeeat.  dis,  dites. 
SuBJ.   Pres.  dise  ;  Pret.  disse. 
Paet.   Pres.  disant;  Pret.  dit. 

DISSOUDRE,  '  dissolve.'    Like  absoudre. 

DORMIR,  'sleep,'  Lat.  dormire. 
In  DIG.  Pres.  dors,  dors,  dort,  donnons,  donnez,  dorment. 

Pret.  donnis;  Put.  donnirai.   Impeeat.  dors,  dormez. 


CATALOGUE  OF  IRKEGULAR  VERBS.        145 

Sub  J.    Pres.  dorme,  &c.,  dormions,  &c. ;  Pret.  dormisse. 
Part.   Pres.  dormant;  Perf.  dormi. 

ECHOIR,  comp.  of  choir,  *  fall  out. '    Unipersonal. 
li^Dic.  Pres.  6choit,  and  6choient. 

Pret.  6chus ;  Fut.  ^cherrai.     No  Imperf. 
SuBJ.   Pres.  wanting ;  Pret.  6chusse.     No  Imperat. 
Part.  Pres.  6cheaiit;  Perf.  echu. 

ECLORE,  Miatch/ Lat.  excludere.     Unipersonal. 
Indic.  Pres.  6clot,  6closent ;  Fut.  6clora,  6cloroiit. 
CoifDiT.         6clorait,  6cloraieiit. 
SuBj.    Pres.  6close,  6closeiit. 
Part.  Pres.  6closaiit ;  Perf.  6clos.     Other  parts  wanting. 

ECRIRE,  'write/  Lat.  scribere. 
Indic.  Pres.  6cris,  6cris,  6crit,  6crivons,  6crivez,  6crireiit. 

Pret.  6crivis;  Fut.  6crirai. 
SuBJ.   Pres.  6crive ;  Pret.  6crivisse.  Imperat.  6cris,  toivez. 
Part.  Pres.  6crivant;  Perf.  6cri. 

ENDUIRE,  '  plaster,'  Lat.  inducere.     Like  conduire. 

EMPREINDRE,  'imprint.'     Like  peindre. 

ENVOYER,  'send,'  Lat.  in  via. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  envoie,  envoies,  envoie,  envoyons,  -yez,  -lent. 
Pret.  envoyai;  Fut.  enverrai;  Imperf.  envoyais. 
Otherwise  regular.     See  Sec.  151. 

ETEINDRE,    'extinguish,'   Lat.    exstinguere.      Like 
peindre. 

ETREmDRE,  '  bind,'  Lat.  stringere.     Like  peindre. 

EXCLURE,  '  exclude,'  Lat.  excludere.    Like  conclure. 

FAILLIR,  '  fail,  be  wanting,'  Lat.  fallere,     Defective. 
Ikdic.  Pret.  faillis.     Part.  Perf.  failli. 
Other  parts  wanting.     In  the  sense  of  '  make  a  failure  '  it 
is  regular. 

FAIRE,  'do,'  Lat.  facere. 
Ii^Dic.  Pres.  fats,  fais,  fait,  faisons,  faisez,  font  (25,  4). 


146  FBEKCH   GEAMMAR. 

Indic.  Pret.  fis ;  Fiit.  ferai ;  Imperf.  faisais. 

Sub  J.   Pres.  fasse ;  Pret.  fisse. 

Paet.  Pres.  faisaut ;  Perf .  fait.     Impeeat.  fais,  faites. 

FALLOIE,  'be  necessary,'  Lat.  fallere.     Unipersonal. 
Iiq^Dic.  Pres.  faut  (no  pi. ) ;  Imperf.  fallait ;  Fut.  faudra. 

Pret.  faUut. 
Sub  J.    Pres.  faiUe;  Pret.  fallut. 
Paet.   Pres.  wanting ;  Perf.  fallu. 

FEINDRE,  'feign,'  Lat.  fingere.    Like  peindre. 

FERIR,  'strike,'  Lat.  ferire  ;  used  only  in  sans  coup 
f6rir,  without  a  blow  struck. 

FLEURIR,  'blossom.'  Regular  when  used  literally. 
Figuratively  used,  Indie.  Imperf.  florissait;  Pres.  Part. 
florissant. 

FRIRE,  'fry,'  Lat.  frigere.  Defective.  .Only  in  Indie. 
Pres.  Ms,  Ms,  Mt;  Fut.  frirai;  Cond.  frirais;  Impcrat. 
fris;  Part.  Perf.  Mt. 

FUIR,  '  flee,'  Lat.  fugere. 
Indic.  Pres.  fuis,  ftiis,  fait,  fuyons,  fiiyez,  fuient. 
Pret.  fuis;  Imperf.  fuyais;  Fut.  fiiirai 
SuBJ.    Pres.  foie ;  Pret.  fuisse. 
Impeeat.       fais,  fiiites. 
Pabt.   Pres.  fuyant;  Perf.  fui. 

6ESIR,  'lie,'  Lat.  jacere.     Defective. 
Iis^Dic.  Pres.  git,  gisons,  gisez,  gisent. 

Imperf.  gisait ;  Paet.  Pres.  gisant. 
Ci-git,  'here  lies,'  is  used  on  tomb-stones. 

HAIR,  'hate,'  regular  except  diaeresis. 
Indic.  Pres.  hais ;  Pret.  hais.     Part.  Pres.  hai. 

INDUIRE,  'infer,'  Lat.  inducere.     Like  conduire. 

INSCRIRE,  '  inscribe.'     Like  6crire. 

INSTRTJIRE,  '  instruct.'    Like  conduire. 


CATALOGUE  OF  lEREGULAR  VERBS.        147 

INTERDIRE,  'interdict.'    Like  d6dire. 

rNTRODUIRE,  '  introduce.'    Like  conduire. 

ISSm,    'issue,'  Lat.  exire.      Participles  issant,  issu. 
East  obsolete. 

LIRE,  'read,'  Lat.  legere. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  lis,  lis,  lit,  lisons,  lisez,  lisent. 

Pret.  lus ;  Put.  lirai ;  Imperf .  lisais. 
SuBJ.    Pres.  Use ;  Pret.  lusse. 
Imperat.        lis,  lisez     Part.  Pres.  lisant ;  Perf .  lu. 

LUIKE,  'shine,'  Lat.  lucere.      Like  conduire,  except 
Perf.  Part,  lui ;  Pret.  Indie,  and  Subj.  are  wanting. 

MATJDIRE,  'curse,'  Lat.  maledicere. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  maudis,  -dis,  -dit,  -dissons,  -ssez,  -ssent. 

Pret.  maudis ;  Put.  maudirai ;  Imperf.  maudissais. 
Subj.    Pres.  maudisse,  -isses,  maudisse,  maudissions,  &c. 

Pret.  maudisse,  maudisses,  maudit,  maudissions,  &c. 
Part.   Pres.  maudissant ;  Perf.  maudit. 

MENTIR,  'lie,'  Lat.  mentire. 
Ik  DIG.  Pres.  mens,  mens,  ment,  mentons,  mentez,  mentent. 

Pret.  mentis;  Put.  mentirai. 
Subj.    Pres.  mente ;  Pret.  mentisse.     Imperat.  mens,  -tez. 
Part.  Pres.  mentant;  Perf.  menti. 

METTRE,  'place,'  Lat.  mittere. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  mets,  mets,  met,  mettons,  mettez,  mettent. 

Pret.  mis;  Put.  mettrai. 
Subj.    Pres.  mette;  Pret.  misse. 
Imperat.       mets,  mettez. 
Part.  Pres.  mettant;  Perf.  mis. 

MOUDRE,  'grind,'  Lat.  molere. 
Ii^Dic.  Pres.  mouds,  mouds,  moud,  moulons,  -lez,  moulent. 

Pret.  moulus;  Put.  moudrai. 
Subj.  Pres.  moule ;  Pret.  moulusse. 
Part.  Pres.  moulant ;  Perf.  moulu.   Imperat.  mouds,  -lez. 


148  FEEKCH   GEAMMAE. 

MOTJIIIR,  *  die/  Lat.  moriri. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  meurs,  meurs,  meurt,  mourons,  -rez,  meurent. 

Pret.  mourus ;  Fut.  mourrai. 
SuBJ.    Pres.  meure ;  Pret.  mourusse. 
Paet.   Pres.  mourant;  Perf.mort.  Impeeat.  meurs,  mourez. 

MOTTVOIE,  '  move/  Lat.  movere. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  meus,  meus,  meut,  mouvons,  mouvez,  meuvent. 

•Pret.  mus ;  Fut.  mouvrai. 
SuBJ.  Pres.  meuve ;  Pret.  musse. 
Paet.  Pres.  mouvant ;  Perf .  inii.     Impeeat.  meus,  mouvez. 

NAITEE,  M^e  born/  Lat.  nasci,  natns. 
Indic.  Pres.  nais,  nais,  nait,  naissons,  naissez,  naissent. 

Pret.  naquis;  Fut.  naitrai. 
SuBJ.    Pres.  naisse  ;  Pret.  naquisse. 
Paet.   Pres.  naissant ;  Perf.  116. 

NUIRE,  *  injure/  Lat.  nocere. 
In^dic.  Pres.  nuis,  nuis,  nuit,  nuisons,  nuisez,  nuisent. 
Like  conduire,  except  Part.  Perf.  nui  (not  nuit). 

OFFRIR,  '  offer/  Lat.  offere.     Like  ouvrir. 

OINDRE,  *  anoint/  Lat.  ungere.     Like  peindre. 

OTTIR,  *hear/  Lat.  audire.  Only  in  Indie.  Pret.  ouis; 
Subj.  Pret.  ouisse ;  and  Part.  Perf.  oui. 

OUVRIR,  '  open/  Lat.  operire. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  ouvre,  ouvres,  ouvre,  ouvrons,  &c. 

Pret.  ouvris ;  Fut.  ouvrirai. 
Subj.  Pres.  ouvre  ;  Pret.  ouvrisse. 
Paet.  Pres.  ouvrant ;  Perf.  ouvert.   Impeeat.  ouvre,  -rez. 

PAITRE,  ^  graze/  Lat.  pascere.  Like  naitre,  except 
that  the  Indic.  Pret.  and  Subj.  Pret.  are  wanting,  and  the 
Part.  Perf.  is  pu  (not  pait). 

PARAiTRE,  '  appear/  Lat.  parere.     Like  connaitre. 

PARTIR,  'set  out/  Lat.  partiri. 
Indic.  Pres.  pars,  pars,  part,  partons,  partez,  partent. 


CATALOGUE  OF  IRREGULAE  VEEBS.        149 

In^dic.  Pret.  partis ;  Fut.  partirai. 
SuBJ.    Pres.  parte;  Pret.  partisse. 
Impeeat.       pars,  partez. 
Paet.    Pres.  partant;  Perf.  parti. 

PEINDRE,  '  paint/  Lat.  pingere. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  peins,  peins,  peint,  peignons,  -gnez,  -gnent. 

Pret.  peignis  ;  Fut.  peindrai. 
Sub  J.    Pres.  peigne ;  Pret.  peignisse. 
Paet.    Pres.  peignant ;  Perf.  peint. 
Impeeat.       peins,  peignez. 

FLAINDRE,  'pity/  Lat.  plangere.     Like  peindre. 

FIAIEE,  'please,'  Lat.  placere.    . 
Indic.  Pres.  plais,  plais,  plait,  plaisons,  plaisez,  plaisent. 

Pret.  plus ;  Fut.  plairai. 
Subj.    Pres.  plaise;  Pret.  plnsse. 
Part.   Pres.  plaisant;  Perf.  plu. 
Impeeat.       plais,  plaisez. 

PLEUVOIR,  'rain/  Lat.  pluere.     Unipersonal. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  pleut;  Pret.  pint;  Imperf.  pleuvait. 
Part.  Pres.  pleuvant;  Perf.  plu. 

POINDRE,  '  dawn/  Lat.  pungere.    Used  only  in  Infin- 
itive and  Indie.  Fut. 

POINDRE,  'to  sting/  is  regular,  like  craindre. 

POUVOIE,  'be  able,'  Lat.  potere,  posse. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  puis  or  peux,  peux,  pent, 
pouvons,  pouvez,  peuvent. 
Pret.  pus ;  Fut.  pourrai. 
Subj.   Pres.  puisse ;  Pret.  pusse,  pusse,  put,  &c. 
Part.  Pres.  pouvant ;  Perf.  pu. 

POURVOIR,  'provide,' Lat.  providere. 
liNTDic.  Pres.  pourvois,  -vols,  -voit,  -voyons,  -voyez,  -voient. 

Pret.  pourvus;  Fut.  pourvoirai. 
Subj.    Pres.  pourvoie;  Pret.  pourvusse. 


150  FEENCH   GRAMMAR. 

Part.   Pres.  pourvoyant ;  Perf .  pourvu. 
Imperat.       pourvoie,  pourvoyez. 

PREDIRE,  ^foretell.'    Like  ni6dire. 

PRENDRE,  'take/  Lat.  prehendere 
Indic.  Pres.  prends,  prends,  prend,  prenons,  -nez,  prennent. 

Pret.  pris ;  Put.  prendrai. 
SuBj.  Pres.  prenne;  Pret.  prisse. 
Part.   Pres.  prenant ;  Perf.  pris.  Imperat.  prends,  prenez. 

PRESCRIRE,  '  prescribe.'    Like  6crire. 

PREVALOIR,  'prevail/ Lat.  praevalere.  Like  valoir, 
except  the  Subj.  Pres.  pr6vale  (not  prevaille). 

PREVOIR,  '  foresee.'  Like  pourvoir,  except  Indie.  Pret. 
pr6vis. 

PRODTJIRE,  '  produce,' Lat.  producere.   Like  conduire. 

PROSCRIRE,  'proscribe.'    Like  6crire. 

QUERIR,  'fetch/  Lat.  qna^rere.  Used  only  in  Infin- 
itive.    See  compounds,  acqu6rir,  &c. 

RECRoItRE,  'grow  again.'    Like  croitre. 

REDTJIRE,  '  reduce,'  Lat.  reducere.    Like  conduire. 

REPARTIR,  '  set  out  again.'  Like  partir.  R6partir, 
distribute,'  is  regular. 

REaUERIR, 'require.'.   Like  acqu6rir. 

RESOUDRE,  '  resolve,'  Lat.  resolvere.  Like  absoudre, 
except  Part.  Perf.  r6solu.  R6sous  is  also  used,  but  lias 
no  feminine,  and  means  'separated,'  'dissolved.' 

RESTREINDRE,  'restrain,'  Lat.  restringere.  Like 
peindre. 

RIRE,  '  laugh,'  Lat.  ridere. 
Indic.  Pres.  ris,  ris,  rit,  rions,  riez,  rient. 

Pret.  ris;  Put.  rirai. 
Subj.    Pres.  rie,  ries,  rie,  riions,  riiez,  riient. 

Pret.  risse. 
Part.   Pres.  riant ;  Perf.  ri.    Imperat.  rie,  riez. 


CATALOGUE  OF  IREEGULAR  VERBS.        151 

ROMPRE,  'break,'  Lat.  rumpere.  Like  vendre.  Re- 
tains the  stem  romp-  throughout,  and  is  really  regular. 

SAILLIR,  '  project/  Lat.  salire.    Unipersonal. 
IxDic.  Pres.  saille,  saillent.     Imperf.  saillait,  saillaient. 
Fut.    saillera,  -ront.     Coj^dit.  saillerais,  -aient. 
Other  tenses  obsolete.     In  the  meaning  *  gush  out/  this 
verb  is  regular  though  unipersonal. 

SAVOIR,  '  know,'  Lat.  sapere. 
liiTDic.  Pres.  sals,  sals,  salt,  savons,  savez,  savent. 

Pret.  sus;  Fut.  saurai. 
Sub  J.   Pres.  sache ;  Pret.  susse. 
Part.  Pres.  sachant;  Perf.  su,     Impbrat.  sache,  sachez. 

SEDUIRE,  *  seduce,'  Lat.  seducere.     Like  conduire. 

SENTIR,  'feel,  smell,'  Lat.  sentire. 
In^dic.  Pres.  sens,  sens,  sent,  sentons,  sentez,  sentent. 

Pret.  sentis ;  Fut.  sentirai. 
SuBJ.  Pres.  sente;  Pret.  sentisse. 
Part.  Pres.  sentant;  Perf.  senti 
Imperat.  sens,  sentez. 

SEOIR,  'fit,  become,' Lat.  sedere.  Unipersonal.  Used 
only  in  Indie.  Pres.  sied,  si6ent ;  Fut.  si6ra,  si6ront ;  Con- 
di t.  si6rait,  -aient ;  Imperf.  seyait ;  Part.  Pres.  seyant. 

In  the  meaning  'to  sit,'  this  verb  has  only  the  Infinitive 
and  two  Participles,  s6ant  and  sis,  in  use.  See  compounds 
asseoir,  &c. 

SERVIR,  'serve,'  Lat.  servire. 
Indig.  Pres.  sers,  sers,  sert,  servons,  servez,  servent. 

Pret.  servis;  Fut.  servirai. 
SuBj.  Pres.  serve;  Pret.  servisse. 
Part.  Pres.  servant;  Perf.  servi.     Imperat.  sers,  servez. 

SORTIR,  '  go  out,'  Lat.  sortiri. 
In^dic.  Pres.  sors,  sors,  sort,  sortons,  sortez,  sortent. 
Other  parts  like  servir. 


153  FKEiq-CH   GEAMMAR. 

SOTOFRIR,  'suffer/  Lat.  sufferre.     Like  ouvrir. 

SOTJRDRE,  '  spring  up '  (of  water),  Lat.  surgere.  Only 
used  in  Indie.  Pres.  3d  pers.  sourd,  and  Infinitive.  The 
Perf.  Part.,  source,  has  become  a  noun. 

SOTJSCRIRE,  '  subscribe.'     Like  6crire. 

SUFFIRE.  ^suffice,'  Lat.  sufficere. 
In  DIG.  Pres.  suffis,  suffis,  suffit,  suffisons,  suffisez,  suffisent. 

Pret.  suffis ;  Put.  suffirai. 
SuBJ.    Pres.  suffise ;  Pret.  suffisse. 
Part.  Pres.  suffisant ;  Perf.  suffi. 
Imperat.       suffis,  suffisez. 

STJIVRE,  *  follow,'  Lat.  sequi. 
Indic.  Pres.  suis,  suis,  suit,  suivons,  suivez,  suivent. 

Pret.  suivis ;  Put.  suivrai. 
Sub  J.  Pres.  suive;  Pret.  suivisse. 
Part.  Pres.  suivant ;  Perf.  suivi.     Imperat.  suis,  suivez. 

STJRSEOIR,  '  supersede  '  (legal  term). 
Indic.  Pres.  sursois,  sursois,  sursoit,  sursoyons,  -yez,  -oient. 

Pret.  sursis ;  Put.  surseoirai. 
SuBj.    Pres.  sursoie  ;  Pret.  sursisse. 
Part.  Pres.  sursoyant;  Perf.  sursis. 
Imperat.       sursois,  sursoyez. 

TAIRE,  '  be  silent,  conceal,'  Lat.  tacere.  Like  plaire. 
Pres.  tais,  taisons,  &c. 

TEINDRE,  'dye,'  Lat.  tingere.     Like  peindre. 

TENIR,  '  hold,'  Lat.  tenere.     Like  venir. 

TRADTJIRE,  'translate,'  Lat.  traducere.  Like  con- 
duire. 

TRAIRE,  '  milk,'  Lat.  trahere. 
Indic.  Pres.  trais,  trais,  trait,  trayons,  trayez,  traient. 

Pret.  wanting;  Fut.  trairai. 
Sub  J.   Pres.  traie;  Pret.  wanting. 
Part.  Pres.  trayant ;  Perf.  trait. 
Imperat.      trais,  trayez. 


CATALOGUE  OF  IRREGULAE  VERBS.        153 

TRANSCRIRE,  '  transcribe.'     Like  ecrire. 

TRESSAILLIR,  'start,  tremble/  Lat.  salire.  Like 
assaillir,  but  Fut.  and  Condit.  end  in  -erai,  -erais,  or  -irai, 
-irais. 

VAINCRE,  '  conquer, '  Lat.  vincire. 
Indic.  Pres.  vaincs,  vaincs,  vainc,  vainquons,  -quez,  -quent. 

Pret.  vainquis;  Fut.  vaincrai. 
SuBJ.   Pres.  vainque ;  Pret.  vainquisse. 
Part.  Pres.  vainquant;  Perf.  vaincu. 
Imperat.       vaincs,  vainquez. 

VALOIR,  'be  worth,'  Lat.  valere. 
Indic.  Pres.  vaux,  vaux,  vaut,  valons,  valez,  valent. 

Pret.  valus ;  Fut.  vaudrai. 
Sub  J.    Pres.  vaille ;  Pret.  valusse. 
Part.   Pres.  valant;  Perf.  valu. 
Imperat.       vaux,  valez. 

VENIR,  '  come,'  Lat.  venire. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  viens,  viens,  vient,  venons,  venez,  viennent. 

Pret.  vins;  Fut.  viendrai. 
SuBj.   Pres.  vienne  ;  Pret.  vinsse. 
Imperat.       viens,  venez. 

V^TIR,  'clothe,'  Lat.  vestire. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  vets,  vets,  v§t,  v§tons,  vetez,  vetent. 

Pret.  v§tis;  Fut.  vetirai. 
Sub  J.  Pres.  v^te ;  Pret.  v§tisse. 
Part.  Pres.  vetant ;  Perf.  vetu. 
Imperat.       vets,  vetez. 

VIVRE,  'live,'  Lat.  vivere. 
Ii^Dic.  Pres.  vis,  vis,  vit,  vivons,  vivez,  vivent. 

Pret.  v6cus ;  Fut.  vivrai. 
Sub  J.    Pres.  vive;  Pret.  v6cusse. 
Part.   Pres.  vivant ;  Perf.  v6cu.     Imperat.  vis,  vivez. 
7* 


154  FREN^CH   GRAMMAR. 

VOIR,  'see/  Lat.  videre. 
Ikdic.  Pres.  vols,  vols,  voit,  voyons,  voyez,  voient 

Pret.  vis ;  Put.  verrai. 
Sub  J.  Pres.  voie ;  Pret.  visse. 
Part.   Pres.  voyant;  Perf.  vu.     Imperat.  vols,  voyez. 

VOULOIR,  '  will,  be  willing,'  Lat.  volo,  yelle. 
Indic.  Pres.  veux,  veux,  veut,  voulons,  voulez,  veulent. 

Pret.  voulus ;  Put.  voudrai. 
SuBJ.    Pres.  veuille ;  Pret.  voulusse. 
Part.  Pres.  voulant;  Perf.  voulu. 
Imperat.       veux,  voulez. 

In  the  sense  of  *be  so  good  as,'  '  deign,'  the  Imperat.  is 
veuille  and  veuillez  (really  Subjunctive). 


EXERCISES. 


155 


PART  II.— EXERCISES. 

EXERCISE   1. 

Sees.  61-2.— The  Definite  Article. 

1.  Les  chats  sont  les  ennemis  des  souris.  2.  Le  sommeil 
est  Fimage  de  la  mort.  3.  Les  chiens  sont  les  plus  fidoles 
des  animaux.  4.  L'oiseau  est  sur  le  toit.  5.  Je  suis  le 
onzieme  de  ma  classe.  6.  Oii  est  le  chemin  du  village  au 
chateau.  7.  Oii  est  le  jardin  du  fr^re  ?  8.  Le  chapeau 
du  monsieur  est  ici,  sur  le  table.  9.  Les  £onseils  des 
meres  aux  lilies.  10.  La  ressemblance  du  sing*a  Fhomme. 
11.  Voila  les  portraits  du  frere,  de  la  soeur,  et  des  cou- 
sins. 12.  Donnez  le  parapluie  au  monsieur,  et  Fombrelle 
a  la  dame. 


je  suis,  I  am. 
tu  es,  thou  art. 
il  est,  he,  it,  is. 

le  chat,  the  cat. 
la  souris,  the  mouse. 
le  sommeil,  sleep. 
le  chien,  the  dog. 
animaux,  animals. 
le  toit,  the  roof. 
le  chemin,  the  road, 
les  plus  fideles,  the 

most  faithful, 
sur,  upon. 


Vocabulary.* 

nous  sommes,  we  are. 
vous  dtes,  you  are. 
ils  sont,  they  are. 


elle  est,  she,  it,  is. 
elles  sont,  they  are. 


ma,  my. 

ou,  where. 

voila,  here  is,  are. 

donnez,  give. 

le  parapluie,  the  um- 
brella. 

I'ombrelle,  the  para- 
sol. 

le  village,  the  village. 


le  jardin,  the  garden. 
le  chapeau,  the  hat. 
le  conseil,  advice. 
la  fille,  the  daughter. 
le  singe,  the  monkey. 
la  sceur,  the  sister. 
la  dame,  the  lady. 
le  monsieur,  the  gen- 
tleman. 


Sees.  63-4.- 


EXERCISE   2. 

-Definite  Article  continued. 


1.  Le  sommeil  est  I'image  de  la  mort.  2.  La  mort  est 
le  passage  de  la  vie  a  Timmortalite.  3.  Mars  est  le  dieu 
de  la  guerre.  4.  Le  vice  est  odieux.  5.  La  politesse  est 
souvent  une  vertu  de  mine  et  de  parade  (Mirabeau).  6.  II 
reve  de  tresors,   de   sceptres,  de  palais?     7.  Londres  est 


*  Words  whose  meaning  is  given  in  the  text  of  the  grammar  in  the  present  sec- 
tions, and  words  exactly  alike  in  both  languages,  are  not  give^jpi^s^'^r*«a«k^ 


(OF  THB  X 

UNIVERSITY  \ 


156 


FKEKCH  GRAMMAE. 


en  feu.  8.  Ce  vaisseau  arrive  de  la  Jamaique.  9.  Le 
beurre  est  bien  cher  a  vingt  sous  la  livre.  10.  Le  cheval 
est  bien  utile  a  rhomme.  11.  Voila  los  gants  de  la  dame, 
sur  la  chaise.  12.  Vous  avez  une  grande  admiration  pour 
le  Dante. 


j'ai,  I  have. 

tu  as,  thou  hast. 

il  a,  he,  it,  has. 


Vocabulary. 

nous  avons,  we  have, 
vous  avez,  you  have, 
avez-vous?  have  you? 


ils  ont,  they  have, 
elles  ont,  they  have. 
elle  a,  she,  it,  has. 


le  dieu,  the  gAd. 
la  guerre,  war. 
la    politesse,    polite- 
ness. 
la  mine,  pretence. 
le  sou,  half -penny. 
le  gant,  the  glove. 
le  cheval,  the  horse. 


odieux,  odious. 
il  reve,  he  dreams. 
Londres,  London. 
11  arrive,  he  comes, 
cher,  dear, 
vingt,  twenty, 
utile,  useful, 
grande,  great, 
pour,  for. 


les  tresors,  treasures. 
les  palais,  palaces. 
le  feu,  fire. 

le  vaisseau,  the  ves- 
sel, 
le  beurre,  butter. 
la  livre,  the  pound. 
la  chaise,  the  chair. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Ine  bird  is  on  the  tree.  2.  Here  is  the  history  of 
Christianity.  3.  The  man  is  on  the  roof.  4.  Here  is  the 
mother's  advice.     5.  Where  are  the  gentleman's  gloves  ? 

6.  Have  you  my  chair  ?  7.  He  is  useful  to  men.  8.  We 
have  twenty  pounds  of  butter. 

EXERCISE  3. 

Sees.  65-6. — Indefinite  Article. 

1.  Nous  avons  le  Misanthrope,  comedie  par  Moli^re. 
2.  Votre  ami  est  homme  de  coeur.  3.  Ils  sont  a  Eome, 
yille  d'ltalie.  4.  J'ai  un  oncle  qui  est  un  tr^s-bon  avocat. 
5.  Votre  oncle,  est-il  medecin  ?     6.  Non,  ilest  journaliste. 

7.  Quel  est  le  titre  de  ce  livre  ?      Histoire  de   Kussie. 

8.  Faire  une  grande  fortune  n'est  pas  chose  facile.  9.  Nous 
allons  rendre  une  courte  visite.  10.  Nous  avons  un  verre 
et  une  bouteille  de  biore.  11.  Le  beau  n'est  pas  ton  jours 
I'utile.  12.  Achille  (Sec.  40),  ^me  de  feu,  dont  la  rage 
est  d'un  tigre  (Delille).  13.  Une  fomme  prudente  est  la 
source  des  biens. 


EXERCISES. 


157 


Vocabulary. 


est-il  ?  is  lie  ? 
est-elle?  is  she? 
sont-ils  ?  are  they  ? 


a-t-il  ?  has  he  ? 
a-t-elle  ?  has  she  ? 
ont  ils  ?  have  they? 


votre,  your. 
par,  by. 
tres,  very, 
non,  not. 
bon,  good, 
quel,  what  ? 
la  villa,  city. 
le  coeur,  heart,  cour- 
age. 
I'avocat,  lawyer. 
le  medecin,  doctor. 


le  titre,  title, 
ne — pas,  not. 
le  livre,  book. 
I'histoire,  history, 
faire,  to  make, 
ce,  this,  that, 
facile,  easy, 
nous  aliens,  we  are 

going, 
la  chose,  thing, 
la  bouteille,  bottle. 

English  into  French. 


le  verre,  glass. 
la  biere,  beer, 
rendre,  to  pay,  render, 
toujours,  always, 
dont,  of  which,  whose. 
la  rage,  anger,  rage, 
courte,  short, 
mais,  but. 
beau,  beautiful. 
I'ame,  soul. 
le  tigre,  tiger. 


1.  The  child  has  your  book.  2.  We  are  at  Berlin,  a 
city  of  Prussia  (la  Prusse).  3.  We  are  going  to  make  our 
fortune.  4.  Is  your  brother  a  lawyer  ?  5.  'No,  sir,  but 
your  cousin  is  a  very  good  lawyer.  6.  He  has  a  use- 
ful horse.     7.  What  (quelle)  comedy  of  Moliere  has  he  ? 

8.  We  are  men  of  courage.     Are  they  men  of  courage  ? 

9.  Has  she  a  glass  of  beer  ?     He  has   a  bottle   of  beer. 

10.  Has  Achilles  a  soul  of  fire  ?    11.  No,  but  this  soul 
has  the  violence  (rage)  of  a  tiger. 

[Note. — The  teacher  may  extend  these  exercises  in- 
definitely by  changing  the  combinations  of  words  already 
known.  ] 

EXERCISE  4. 

Sees,  67-8. — ^Partitive  Expressions. 

1.  Ma  tante,  a-t-elle  du  pain  ?  2.  Le  roi  a  de  Tor  et  de 
Targent.  3.  A-t-il  de  bon  cafe  ?  4.  II  a  une  carte  de  la 
France.  5.  L'enfant,  a-t-il  des  plumes  ?  6.  S'il  y  a  des 
fleurs  dans  la  vie,  il  y  a  aussi  bien  des  epines.  7.  Donnez- 
moi  un  verre  d'eau  fraiche.  8.  Voici  d'excellent  the. 
9.  Quel  genre  de  maladie  votre  fr^re  a-t-il  ?  10.  Je  n'ai 
encore  mange  ni  des  fraises  ni  des  groseilles  de  votre 
jardin,  madame.     11.     La  lepre  est  un  genre  de  maladie 


158 


FEEiq-CH   GRAMMAR. 


contre  laquelle  la  science  humaine  ne  peut  rien.  12.  Y 
a-t-il  du  monde  dans  les  rues  ?  13.  Elle  a  de  Pesprit 
comme  un  ange.  14.  Je  ne  prends  pas  de  la  peine  pour 
rien.    15.  L'ambition  n'a  guere  de  limites. 


il  y  a,  there  is,  are. 
y  a-t-il  ?  is  there  ? 
donnez-moi,  give  me. 
ai  mange,  have  eaten, 
ni — ni,  neither — nor. 
contre,  against, 
laquelle,  which, 
humaine,  human, 
ne  peut,  cannot  do. 
rien,  nothing, 
comme,  like, 
pour,  for. 
la  tante,  aunt. 
le  pain,  bread. 


Vocabulary. 

I'or,  gold. 
I'argent,  silver. 
I'eau,  water. 
le  the,  tea. 
le  genre,  kind,  genus. 
la  fraise,  strawberry. 
la    groseille,    goose- 
berry, 
la  rue,  street, 
dans,  in. 
range,  angel, 
je  prends,  I  take, 
guere,  scarcely. 


la  carte,  map. 
un  enfant,  a  child, 
une  epine,  a  thorn. 
la  fleur,  flower, 
aussi,  also. 
fraiche,  fresh, 
encore,  yet,  still. 
le  jardin,  garden. 
la  lepre,  leprosy. 
le  monde,  world,  peo- 
ple. 
I'esprit,  wit,  mind. 
la  peine,  trouble. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Have  you  any  bread  ?  No,  madam,  but  I  have  a 
pound  of  coffee.  2.  Give  me  some  beer.  3.  I  have  no 
glass.  4.  My  aunt  has  some'  money.  5.  I  have  neither 
silver  nor  iron.  6.  Give  me  some  strawberries.  7.  Has 
she  any  gooseberries  ?  8.  Here  are  some  maps,  and  some 
flowers.  9.  There  are  people  in  the  garden.  10.  I  take 
trouble  for  nothing:. 


EXERCISE  5. 

Sees.  69-70. — Gender  of  Nouns. 

1.  L'orateur  a  beaucoup  d'amis.  2.  Le  gar9on  a  un 
bon  chien  et  un  mauvais  cheval.  3.  Le  mois  de  mai  est 
un  mois  du  printemps.  4.  Le  plaisir  est  souvent  I'ennemi 
de  la  raison.  5.  Une  ch6ne  a  beaucoup  de  feuilles.  6.  Le 
blanc  et  le  noir  sont  deux  couleurs  opposees.  7.  II  y 
a  un  juif  a  la  porte.  8.  11  n'y  a  pas  de  lions  dans  I'Ame- 
rique.  9.  Je  suis  un  malheureux  FranQais.  10.  ^tes- 
vous  fils  de  I'empereur  ?    11.  !fites-vous  le  fils  de  I'em- 


EXEKCISES. 


159 


pereur  ?  12.  Y  a-t-il  du  feu  dans  la  maison  ?  13.  Avez- 
vous  le  mal  de  dents  ?  14.  Non,  monsieur,  mais  j'ai  le 
mal  de  t^te.  15.  II  est  dangereux  de  conseiller  les  grands. 
16.  Ces  peres  de  Teglise  sont  non-seulement  des  profes- 
seurs  eloquents  (Sec.  76,  N.),  mais  encore  des  hommes 
politiques.  , 


Vocabulary. 


il  n'y  a  pas,  tliere  is  not,  are  not. 
un  orateur,  an  orator, 
beaucoup  de,  much,  many. 
le  printemps,  Spring. 
la  couleur,  color. 
I'empereur,  emperor, 
malheureux,  unhappy. 
6tes- vous  ?  are  you  ? 
oppose,  opposite. 
le  juif,  the  Jew. 
la  porte,  the  door, 
la  maison,  the  house, 
le  t^te,  the  head, 
dangereux,  dangerous, 
conseiller,  to  advise, 
seulement,  only. 
le  gar5on,  the  boy. 


le  chien,  the  dog. 
le  mois,  the  month 
le  plaisir,  pleasure. 
la  feuille,  the  leaf, 
blanc,  white, 
dans,  in. 
nolr,  black. 
deux,  two. 


le  feu,  fire. 
le  denf,  the  tooth. 
le  mal,  evil,  pain, 
une  eglise,  a  church, 
le  professeur,  professor, 
encore,  more,  still. 
politique,  wise,  politic. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Are  you  the  son  of  the  orator  ?  2.  Is  he  the  unfor- 
tunate Jew  ?  3.  What  kind  of  leaves  have  you  ?  4.  Has 
the  emperor  eaten  some  poison  ?  5.  Your  brother  is  at 
the  door.  6.  Are  there  any  oaks  in  France  ?  7.  There 
are  many  dogs  and  horses  in  London.  8.  There  are  some 
Jews  in  the  garden. 

i:ZERCIS£3    6. 

Sec.  71. — Gender  of  Nouns  continued. 

1.  La  reine  a  une  colombe.  2.  Ma  sceur  a  une  rose,  une 
pomme,  et  une  lis  (Sec.  53,  3.  3.  La  corruption  ducoeurest 
sou  vent  la  cause  de  la  corruption  des  moeurs.  4.  II  n'y  a 
pas    de    poisson  dans   cette   riviere.     5.   Donnez   cela   a 


160 


JFKEXCn   GKAMMAR. 


rhomme,  a  la  femme,  aux  filles,  et  aux  gar9oiis.  6.  Y 
a-t-il  beaucoup  de  monde  dans  la  rue  ?  7.  L'eau  de  la 
fontaine  du  pre,  est-il  bien  bonne  ?  8.  Ma  scour  a  de  la 
jalousie  et  de  la  paresse  aussi.  9.  Le  chapeau  du  mon- 
sieur est  ici,  sur  une  table.  10.  Voici  d'excellent  fromage. 
11.  Ou  est  le  chemin  du  chateau  an  village  ?  12.  Voici 
la  route.  13.  De  toutes  les  passions  que  les  hommes  op- 
posent  a  la  yerite,  la  jalousie  est  la  plus  dangereuse. 


la  sceur,  sister. 
la  pomme,  apple. 
la  lis,  lily. 
le  ccBur,  heart, 
les  mceurs,  manners. 
le  poisson,  fish. 
la  riviere,  stream. 
la  fenune,  woman. 
la  paresse,  idleness. 
le  fromage,  cheese. 


Vocabulary. 

souvent,  often, 
cette,  this. 
cela,  that, 
bien,  very,  well, 
bonne,  good,  fine. 
ici,  here, 
sur,  upon,  on. 
ou,  where, 
opposent,  oppose. 
la  plus,  the  most. 


la  fille,  the  girl. 
le  gar9on,  the  boy. 
l'eau,  water, 
le  pre,  meadow. 
la  route,  the  way. 
la  verite,  truth, 
la  jalousie,  jealousy. 
lafontaine,the  spring, 
la  soeur,  the  .^ister. 
que,  that,  which. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Where  is  your  candle  ?  2.  Where  is  the  gentleman's 
hat  ?  3.  It  is  in  the  meadow  near  (pret  de)  the  spring. 
4.  Is  truth  often  very  dangerous  ?  5.  There  is  no  jeal- 
ousy in  this  woman's  heart.  6.  Are  there  any  fish  in  the 
house  ?    7.  The  girl's  sister  has  some  excellent  cheese. 

EXERCISE    7. 

Sees.  72-75. — Gender  of  Nouns  continued. 

1.  Voici  une  orpheline  pauvre.  2.  Y  a-t-il  des  Chretiens 
en  Afrique  ?  3.  Une  menteuse,  souvent  enchanteresse, 
est  ton  jours  une  vrai  pecheresse.  4.  L'aigle  est  le  plus 
fier  des  oiseaux  qui  volent  dans  I'air.  5.  Combien  d'ex- 
emples  avez-vous  dans  votre  legon  aujourd'hui  ?  6.  II 
n'y  a  que  trois  dans  mon  livre.  7.  Sur  quel  page  sont- 
ils  ?  8.  Allons  a  la  poste  avec  les  lettres  de  la  poetesse. 
9.  N'avez-vous  pas  un  souris  pour  moi  ?  10.  Oui,  mon- 
sieur, maijs  mon  voile  est  trds-epais.  11.  Cette  histoire  n'est 
qu'un  coq-a-Pdne.     Elle  n'est  pas  vraie.     12.  L'honneur 


EXERCISES. 


161 


et  la  justice  sont  entierement  bannis  de  ce  monde.   13.  Le 
flambeau  de  la  critique  ne  doit  pas  brtiler,  mais  eclairer. 


tin  orphelin,  orphan. 

le  chretieiijCliristian. 

le  menteur,  liar. 

I'enchanteur,  enclian- 
ter. 

le  pecheur,  sinner. 

I'oiseau,  bird. 

I'air,  the  air. 

le  legon,  lesson. 

le  lettre,  letter. 

le  souris,  the  smile. 

le  voile,  the  veil. 

coq-a-rine,  cock-and- 
bull  story. 


Vocabulary. 

pauvre,  poor, 
toxijours,  always, 
le  plus,  the  most. 
fier,  proud, 
volent,  fly. 
qui,  who,  which, 
combien,  how. 
aiyourd'hui,  to-day. 
ne — que,  only, 
trois,  three, 
men,  my. 
aliens,  let  us  go. 
avec,  with, 
oui,  yes. 


mais,  but. 
epais,  thick, 
vraie,  true. 
entierement,  wholly, 
bannis,  banished. 
doit,  ought. 
briiler,  to  burn, 
eclairer,    to    illumi- 
nate. 
I'honneur,  honor, 
le  flambeau,  torch. 
la  critique,  criticism. 
le  monde,  world, 
rhistoire,  story. 


English  into  French. 

1.  The  orphan-boy  has  a  she-bear  for  his  friend.  2.  Is 
there  often  a  princess  who  is  also  (anssi)  a  poetess  ?  3.  I 
have  a  smile  for  you,  sir,  but  you  have  not  any  beard. 
4.  There  is  a  mouse  in  my  uncle's  house.  5.  Where  is 
the  tower  ?  6.  The  alder-tree  has  many  leaves.  7.  Where 
is  the  sentinel  ?  8.  He  is  in  the  king's  garden,  where 
there  is  an  intruder. 


EXERCISE   8. 

Sees.  76-7. — Number  of  Nouns. 

1.  La  vache  aime  les  choux.  2.  Avez-vous  du  feu  dans 
votre  maison.  3.  Combien  de  fils,  votre  ami  a-t-il  ?  4.  Les 
yeux  de  Dieu  sont  partout.  5.  Je  n'aime  pas  le  detail. 
6.  Les  chevaux  sont  tres-utiles.  7.  Vous  avez  trois  eglises 
dans  votre  ville.  8.  Les  vents  du  midi  sont  chauds.  9.  Les 
etoiles  sont  Tornement  des  cieux.  10.  J'ai  vu  le  beau 
ciel  d'ltalie.  11.  Voici  du  betail.  Nos  bestiaux  sont  sur 
la  montagne.  12.  Dieu  a  I'oeil  partout.  13.  Nous  avons 
vu  les  funerailles  d'une  dame  tres-riche.  14.  II  y  a  peu 
de  difference  entre  les  moeurs  anglaises  et  les  americaines. 


163 


FRENCH    GRAMMAR. 


15.  J'ai  vu  les  cMteaux  et  les  palais.  16.  La  fierte  d'ua 
grand  nom  rend  ses  maux  plus  per9ans.  17.  Le  temps  ou 
la  mort  sont  nos  remedes. 


j*aime,  I  like  (love), 
tu  aimes,  thou  lovest. 


Vocabulary, 
il  aime,  lie  loves. 

elle  aime,  she  loves. 


aime-t-il  ?     does    he 

love? 
aime-t-elle  ?  does  she 

love  ? 


la  vache,  the  cow. 

le  chou,  cabbage. 

le  feu,  fire. 

un  ami,  a  friend. 

un  ceil,  an  eye. 

Dieu,  God. 

le  detail,  details. 

retoile,  the  star. 

la  fierte,  pride. 

le  temps,  time. 

le  cheval,  horse. 


le  vent,  wind. 

le  ciel,  heaven,  sky. 

le  betail,  cattle. 

la  montagne,  moun- 
tain. 

les  funerailles,  fune- 
ral. 

la  dame,  lady. 

les  moeurs,  manners. 

le  nom,  name. 

la  mort,  death. 


partout,  everywhere. 

riche,  rich. 

tres,  very. 

peu,  little. 

entre,  between. 

vn,  seen. 

rend,  makes,  renders. 

ses,  his,  her,  its. 

per9ant,  piercing. 

nos,  our. 

la  remede,  remedy. 


English  into  French. 

1.  I  have  two  brothers  and  three  sisters.  2.  Have  you 
the  corals  and  the  enamels  ?  3.  Does  he  like  horses  and  also 
jewels  ?  4.  We  have  the  children  on  our  knees.  5.  The 
cow  has  seen  our  cabbages.  6.  I  have  seen  your  labors. 
7.  Are  there  jackals  in  America  ?  8.  There  are  no  reme- 
dies. 

EXERCISE   9. 

Sees.  78-80. — ^Number  of  Nouns  continued. 

1.  Y  a-t-il  des  arcs-en-ciel  ?  2.  Aimes-tu  les  beaux- 
freres  de  ma  mdre  ?  3.  Les  chefs-d'oeuvre  de  Michel- 
Ange  (Sec.  40)  sont  a  Rome.  4.  Les  parapluies  sont  des 
compagnons  tr^s-utiles  en  Ecosse.  5.  Les  passeports  sont 
demandes  en  France  par  les  gendarmes.  6.  lis  ont  deux 
ou  trois  essuie -mains.  7.  Les  enfans  ont  les  pleurs  fa- 
ciles.  8.  Donnez-moi  deux  demi-livres,  une  de  sucre, 
I'autre  de  cafe.  9.  Les  Jesuites  ont  plus  d'arriere-pensees 
dans  Fesprit  que  de  paroles  dana  la  bouche.     10.  Les  plai- 


EXERCISES. 


163 


sirs  ainsi  que  les  peines  troublent  rdme. 
exemple  tire  des  papiers  anglais. 

Vocabulary. 


11.  Voici  un 


arc-en-ciel  (bow-in-sky),  rainbow, 
beau-frere  (fine-brother),  brotlier- 

in-law. 
chef-d'oeuvre  (chief    of    work), 

masterpiece, 
parapluie  (for  rain),  umbrella, 
passeport  (pass  gate),  passport, 
gendarme  (man  of  arms),  police. 
Ecosse,  Scotland, 
pleurs,  tears. 
le  Sucre,  sugar. 
I'autre,  other. 
le  cafe,  coffee. 
I'esprit,  mind. 


le  parole,  word. 

la  bouche,  mouth. 

le  plaisir,  pleasure. 

la  peine,  pain. 

arriere-pensee      (back-thought), 

reservation, 
essuie-main  (wipe-hands),  towel, 
ainsi  que,  as  well  as. 
demi-livre,  half-pound, 
troublent,  disturb, 
tire,  taken. 
le  papier,  paper, 
exemple,  instance, 
facile,  ready,  easy. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Where  are  your  (vos)  towels  ?  2.  The  stars  of  the 
sky  are  one  of  God's  masterpieces.  3.  Do  children  have 
(children  have  thej)  tears  always  ready  ?  4.  Do  you  have 
many  reservations  m  your  words  ?  5.  Where  is  my  mother's 
umbrella  ?  6.  Your  passports  are  on  the  table  or  in  your 
hat.  7.  Give  me  some  sugar  for  (pour)  my  brother's 
children,  also  some  paper. 

EXERCISE    10. 

Sees.  81-2. — Case  of  Nouns. 

1.  Je  distingue,  d  I'horizon,  la  fumee  d'un  bateau  d  va- 
peur.  2.  L'eau  de  fontaine  est  dangereuse  en  ete.  3.  Merci 
de  la  genealogie  !  4.  Bonne  reussite  !  bon  voyage,  mon 
ami.  5.  Un  honnete  homme  et  un  noble  projet  vont  tou- 
jours  figure  decouverte  (Dumas).  6.  Sa  probite  I'a  rendu 
I'arbitre  de  tons  ses  voisins.  7.  Le  roi  I'a  nomme  ministre 
des  affaires  etrangeres.  8.  II  a  invente  cette  histoire. 
9.  Elle  vend  ce  secret  (Sec.  39,  2,  N.)  mille  louis  d'or  a 
Fouche.  10.  II  a  passe  I'ete  a  la  campagne.  11.  Un  juge, 
I'an  passe,  me  prit  a  son  service.     12.  AUez  tout  le  long 


164 


FRESrCH   GRAMMAR. 


de  la  prairie.  13.  II  va  ton  jours  son  chemin.  14.  Les 
langnes  mortes  et  les  vivantes  ont  presque  tontes  une 
grande  analogie.     15.  II  dormit  d'nn  sommeil  calme. 


je  vais,  I  go. 

tu  vas,  thou  goest. 

il  va,  lie  goes. 


Vocabulary. 

nous  aliens,  we  go. 
vous  allez,  you  go. 

ils  vont,  they  go. 


va-t-il ?  does  lie  go? 
allez-vous?   are  you 

going? 
vont-ils  ?     are    they 

going? 


la  fumee,  smoke. 

le  bateau,  boat. 

la  vapeur,  steam. 

la  genealogie,  geneal- 
ogy. 

la  figure,  face. 

la  probite,  upright- 
ness. 

I'arbitre,  arbiter. 

le  voisin,  neighbor. 

le  ministre,  minister. 

les  affaires,  business. 

le  chemin,  road. 

le  sommeil,  sleep. 

le  voyage,  journey. 

la  reussite,  success. 

le  projet,  project. 


la  campagne,  field. 

distingue,  perceive. 

dangereuse,  danger- 
ous. 

merci !  spare  1 

honnete,  honest. 

decouverte,  discov- 
ered. 

rendu,  rendered. 

tout,  all. 

ses,  their,  his,  her. 

nomme,  named. 

etranger,  foreign. 

mille,  1000. 

invente,  invented. 

cette,  this,  that. 

vend,  sells. 

English  into  French. 


passe,  passed,  past. 

le,  him,  it. 

me,  me. 

prit,  took. 

le  langue,  language. 

I'ete,  summer. 

bonne,  good. 

rami,  friend. 

louis  d'or,  gold  piece. 

le  juge,  judge. 

mort,  dead. 

vivant,  living. 

presque,  almost. 

dormit,  slept. 

calme,  calm. 

le  long,  the  length. 


1.  Have  you  anj  spring- water  ?  2.  No,  sir,  we  are  go- 
ing to  the  spring  in  the  meadow.  3.  I  perceive  in  the  road 
the  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  4.  Steamboats  are  dan- 
gerous but  useful  also.  5.  The  king  is  the  friend  of  the 
judge.  6.  Are  we  going  the  whole  length  of  the  prairie  ? 
7.  No,  sir,  my  friend  is  dead. 


EXERCISE  11. 

Sees.  83-85. — Gender  of  Adjectives. 

1.  Nous  avons  des  anneaux  d'or  massif,  et  des  boutons 
de  metal  jaune.    2.  Votre  cheval,  est-il  tres-vif  ?  3.  Non, 


EXEKCISES. 


165 


mais  ma  jument  est  tr^s-vive.  4.  Le  temps  est  doux  ;  la 
chaleur  du  soleil  est  tres-douce.  5.  J'ai  envie  d'une  robe 
bleue.      6.  Tous  les  citoyens  sont  eganx   devant  la  loi. 

7.  Les  etoiles  de  la  Grande-Ourse  sont  des  astres  boreaux. 

8.  J'eiitends  deja  Baldus,  ce  pedant  froid  et  sec,  Qui 
mache  a  tout  propos  du  latin.  9.  Voila  une  fleur  gentille, 
n'est-ce  pas  ?  10.  Non,  monsieur,  mais  votre  bouquet  est 
gen  til.     11.  Aimez-vous  les  phrases  ambigues  ? 


massif,  solid. 
jaune,  yellow. 
vif,  quick,  lively, 
doux,  sweet. 
bleu,  blue, 
egal,  equal, 
boreal,  northern, 
froid,  cold, 
sec,  dry. 
gentil,  nice, 
un  anneau,  a  ring. 
I'or,  gold. 


Vocabulary. 

le  boutou,  button, 
le  cheval,  horse, 
le  metal,  metal. 
la  jument,  mare. 
le  temps,  weather, 
la  chaleur,  heat, 
le  soleil,  sun. 
I'envie,  desire. 
la  robe,  dress. 
le  citoyen,  citizen, 
la  loi,  law. 
I'etoile,  the  star. 

English  into  French. 


I'astre,    constella- 
tion. 
I'ours,  the  bear, 
le  latin,  Latin. 
la  fleur,  flower, 
devant,  before, 
j'entends,  I  hear, 
deja,  already, 
mache,  mumbles, 
propos,  occasion. 
est-ce  ?  is  it  ? 


1.  Where  is  my  father's  big  dog  ?  2.  I  desire  some  very 
nice  flowers.  3.  Are  all  men  and  women  equal  before  the 
law  ?  4.  Here  is  a  solid  gold  ring.  5.  Where  is  the  cold 
and  dry  pedant  who  mumbles  Latin  ?  6.  Their  buttons 
are  of  solid  metal.  7.  My  mare  is  very  pretty  and  also 
quick.  8.  Do  you  like  the  sun's  heat  ?  9.  Your  bouquet 
is  dry,  is  it  not  ?  10.  You  have  a  blue  dress,  have  you 
not  ?    11.  You  do  not  mumble  Latin,  do  you  ? 


EXERCISI!  12. 

Sees.  86-90. — Gender  of  Adjectives,  and  Number. 

1.  Qui  a  mon  nouveau  crayon  ?  2.  Nous  donnons  une 
rose  blanche  a  la  soeur  de  I'actrice.  3.  La  chair  du  cliien 
n'est  pas  bon  a  manger.  4.  Vieux  soldat,  vielle  bete  c'est 
une  proverbe.  5.  Ce  vin  est  frais,  cette  eau  n'est  pas 
fraiche.     6.  Vous  etes  fou  si  vous  avez  ce  fol  espoir,  car 


166 


FEEKCH   GRAMMAR. 


c'est  line  folle  idee.  7.  J'ai  un  nouvel  eventail,  un  nou- 
veau  manteau,  et  une  nouA^elle  ombrelle.  8.  La  nation 
franque  etait  belliqueuse.  9.  Le  coeur  etouilait  les  objec- 
tions timides  de  Tesprit.  10.  II  y  a  des  lieros  en  mal 
comme  en  bien. 


nouveau,  new. 
blanc,  white. 
bdte,  stupid, 
frais,  fresh, 
fou,  foolish, 
belliqueux,  warlike, 
timide,  timid. 
mal,  ill,  bad. 
bien,  well. 


Vocabulary. 

le  crayon,  pencU. 
la  chair,  flesh, 
le  chien,  dog, 
le  soldat,  soldier, 
le  vin,  wine. 
I'espoir,  hope. 
I'idee,  idea. 
I'eventail,  fan. 
le  manteau,  cloak. 


I'esprit,  mind. 
le   heros    (Sec. 

hero, 
qui,  who. 
manger,  eat. 
fetait,  was. 
etouflfait,  stifled, 
comme,  as,  like. 


45), 


English  into  French. 

1.  The  flesh  of  the  horse  is  not  bad  to  eat.  2.  It  is"  my 
sister  who  has  some  fresh  wine.  3.  You  are  very  stupid 
if  you  have  that  silly  idea.  4.  His  heart  was  timid  in  evil. 
5.  He  stifled  his  foolish  objections.  6.  Are  you  a  hero  in 
good  or  in  evil  ?  7.  Where  is  your  father's  old  horse  ? 
8.  Who  has  my  (ma)  new  white  rose  ? 


EXERCISE  13. 

Sees.  91-94. — Agreement  and  Position  of  Adjectives. 

1.  Le  fer  donne  aux  vegetaux  et  aux  animaux  les  cou- 
leurs  rouges  et  bleus.  2.  La  musique  et  le  dessin  sont 
tres-amusantes.  3.  L'humilite  est  la  base  des  vertus  chre- 
tiennes.  4.  Je  n'aime  pas  les  personnes  qui  sont  cruelles 
envers  les  animaux.  5.  Les  liens  conjuganx  sont  sacres. 
6.  Oe  chien  est  mon  fidele  ami.  7.  Le  bien  i)ul)lic  est 
preferable  d  I'interet  particulier.  8.  II  y  a  deux  heures 
et  demie.  9.  II  est  nu-tete  et  nu-jambes.  10.  Mon  frero 
a  les  pieds  nues.  11.  Je  vous  donne  les  deux  lettres 
ci-incluses.  12.  Les  maisons  qui  sont  proches  de  la 
ville  sont  sujettes  aux  inondations.  13.  Ces  etoffes  sont 
belles,  aussi  colitent-elles  cher.      14.  Me  preservent  les 


EXEECISES. 


167 


cieux  d'une  nouvelle  guerre 
avez  ! 


15.  Quel  noble  cceur  vous 


rouge,  red. 
amusant,  amusing. 
Chretien,  Christian, 
cruel,  cruel, 
sacre,  sacred, 
fidele,  faithful, 
particulier,  private, 
demi,  half, 
nu,  naked, 
inclus,  enclosed, 
proche,  near, 
sujet,  subject. 


Vocabulary. 

cher,  dear, 
le  fer,  iron, 
le  vegetal,  vegetable. 
I'animal,  animal, 
la  couleur,  color. 
la  musique,  music, 
le  dessin,  drawing, 
la  vertu,  virtue. 
le  lien,  bond. 
le  bien,  the  good. 
I'inter^t,  interest. 
la  tdte,  head. 


la  jambe,  leg. 
le  pied,  foot, 
le  lettre,  letter. 
la  maison,  house. 
I'etoflfe,  stuff. 
la  guerre,  war. 
aussi,  also, 
coiitent,  cost, 
preservent,  preserve. 
de,  from,  of. 
quel,  how,  what  a. 
envers,  toward,  to. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Does  your  brother  love  new  books  ?  2.  I  do  not  love 
a  boy  who  is  cruel  to  animals.  3.  The  man,  the  horse, 
the  dog,  are  all  ready.  4.  We  are  going  to  the  house 
with  naked  feet.  5.  Are  you  going  to  the  city  bare- 
foot ?  6.  My  uncle's  horse  has  white  legs.  7.  We  give  an 
hour  and  a  half  of  time.  8.  There  is  a  little  man  in  the 
road. 


EXERCISE  14. 

Sees.  95-98.— Comparison  of  Adjectives,  &c. 

1.  Le  chien,  est-il  plus  fort  que  le  loup  ?  2.  L'ane  est 
moins  beau  que  le  cheval.  3.  Mon  plus  grand  plaisir  c'est 
la  peche  ou  la  nage.  4.  Plus  nous  avons  besoin  de  gens 
pour  nous  servir,  moins  nous  sommes  heureux.  5.  Les 
hommes  les  plus  savants  ne  sont  pas  toujours  les  plus 
vertueux.  6.  L'homme  est  plus  puissant,  plus  sacre  que 
la  loi  (Voltaire).  7.  Les  faux  patriotes  sont  plus  tyrans 
que  les  peres  despotes.  8.  Ces  orphelins  sont  d'autant 
plus  a  plaindre  qu'ils  n'ont  personne  au  monde.  9.  Les 
mouches  sont  on  ne  pent  plus  desagreable.  10.  Je  ne 
suis  pas  si  fou  que  de  vous  croire. 


168 


FREI^'CH   GRAMMAR. 


Vocabulary. 


fort,  strong, 
plus,  more, 
que,  than,  as. 
heureux,  happy, 
savant,  wise, 
vertueux,  virtuous, 
puissant,  powerful, 
faux,  false, 
desagreable,  unpleas- 
ant, 
grand,  great. 


le  loup,  wolf. 
I'ane,  the  ass. 
le  plaisir,  pleasure. 
la  peche,  fishing. 
la  nage,  swimming. 
le  besoin,  need, 
les  gens,  people. 
la  loi,  the  law. 
la  patriote,  patriot. 
le  despote,  despot. 
I'orphelin,  orphan. 

d'autant  plus,  so  much  the  more, 

a  plaindre,  to  be  pitied. 

on  ne  pent  plus,  as  possible  (one 


ne-personne,     no 

one. 
le  monde,  world, 
le  tyran,  tyrant. 
la  mouche,  the  fly. 
pour,  in  order  to. 
servir,  serve, 
moins,  less, 
toujovirs,  always. 
croire,  believe. 


can't  more). 


English  into  French. 

1.  Is  the  flesh  of  the  horse  good  to  eat  ?  2.  It  is  better 
than  the  flesh  of  the  dog.  3.  Do  you  like  fishing  ?  4.  Yes, 
but  swimming  is  the  best.  5.  Despotic  tyrants  are  often 
cruel  to  the  people.  6.  The  ass  is  so  much  the  more  to  be 
pitied  because  he  is  not  so  beautiful  as  the  horse.  7.  Are 
you  so  foolish  as  to  believe  the  false  patriots  ?  8.  Is  not 
the  tyrant  as  disagreeable  as  possible  ? 


EXERCISE  15. 

Sees.  99-100. — Numerals  and  Expressions  of  Size. 

1.  II  y  a  plus  de  deux  cent  quatre-vingt  quinze  per- 
sonnes  dans  la  rue.  2.  J'ai  vingt-trois  ans.  3.  La  grande 
muraille  a  le  nord  de  la  Chine  a  environ  quinze  cent  milles 
de  longueur.  4.  Sur  la  riche  couronne  de  sa  majeste  il  y 
a  une  grosse  6meraude  de  sept  pouces  de  tour,  la  plus  belle 
du  monde.  5.  Les  tours  de  I'eglise  Notre-Dame  a  Paris 
sont  hautes  de  250  pieds.  6.  Vous  dtes  plus  petite  que  Ini 
de  toute  la  t^te.  7.  J'ai  regu  cent  dix  couteaux,  cent 
vingt  canifs,  et  mille  quarante  plumes.  8.  Vous  avez  un 
cent  d'huitres.  9.  J'ai  deux  metres  de  drap.  10.  Trois 
cents  Turcs  sont  tues.  11.  La  reine  Victoria  monta  au 
tr6ne  d'Angleterre,  I'an  mil  huit  cent  trente-sept. 


EXEKCISES. 


169 


Vocabulary. 


un  an,  a  year. 
la  rue,  tlie  street. 
la  muraille,  wall. 
le  nord,  north. 
la  Chine,  China, 
la  longueur,  length. 
la  couronne,  crown. 
I'emeraude,  emerald 
1  e     p  o  u  c  e,     inch 


(thumb). 


I'eglise,  church, 
le  pied,  foot. 
le  couteau,  knife. 
le  canif,  pen-knife. 
la  plume,  pen. 
une  huitre,  oyster, 
le  metre,  yard, 
le  drap,  cloth. 

English  into  French. 


le  tr6ne,  throne, 
plus  de,  more  than, 
environ,  about, 
gros,  large, 
petit,  small,  short, 
toute,  all. 
re9u,  received, 
tues,  killed, 
monta,  mounted. 
Angleterre,  England. 


1.  How  long  is  your  house?  2.  It  is  97  feet  long  and  73 
feet  wide.  3.  Napoleon  III.  died  in  1873.  4.  I  have  been 
(am)  here  21  days.  5.  How  many  (combien  de)  Frenchmen 
were  killed  ?  305.  6.  How  many  yards  of  cloth  have  you  ? 
69.     7.  When  did  Napoleon  mount  .the  throne  ?     1851. 


EXERCISE  16. 

Sees.  101-106. — Expressions  of  Age  and  Time. — Cardinal 
Numbers. 

1.  Le  pape  Pie  neuf  est  Tennemi  de  Tempereur  Guil- 
laume  trois.  2.  Je  suis  dans  ma  vingt  et  unieme  annee. 
3.  Louis  est  le  dix-huiti^me  de  sa  classe,  et  Jules  est  le 
dernier.  4.  Quelle  heure  est-il  ?  5.  II  est  midi  et  demi. 
6.  C'esfc  aujourd'hui  le  premier  Janvier.  7.  La  semaine 
est  la  cinquante-deuxieme  partie  de  I'annee.  8.  Avez-vous 
le  deuxieme  volume  de  Fhistoire  d'Angleterre,  par  Macau- 
lay  ?  9.  Donnez-moi  une  livre  et  demie  de  sucre.  10.  Vous 
avez  les  trois  quarts  de  cette  orange.  11.  Eomulus  fut  le 
premier,  Numa  le  second  roi  de  Rome.  12.  Quel  quan- 
tieme  avons-nous  aujourd'hui  ? 


le  pape,  the  pope. 
I'annee,  year. 
la  classe,  class. 
le  dernier,  last. 
rheiire,  hour. 


Vocabulary. 

Janvier,  January. 
la  semaine,  week. 
le  quart,  quarter, 
aiyourd'hui,  to-day. 
la  partie,  part,  frac- 
tion. 


par,  by. 

quantieme,  day  of  the 

month, 
quel,   quelle,  which, 

what. 


170 


FKEi^CH   GRAMMAR. 


English  into  French. 

1.  How  many  weeks  are  there  in  a  year  ?  52.  2.  Give 
me  56^-  yards  of  cloth.  3.  Kapoleou  III.  died  in  1873. 
4.  It  is  the  31st  day  of  the  month.  5.  What  time  is  it  ? 
Half -past  twelve  at  night.  6.  What  day  of  the  month  is 
it  ?    January  27th.     7.  The  first  week  in  January. 

EXERCISE    17. 

Sees.  107-109. — Personal  Pronouns. 

1.  Donnez-moi  mon  chapeau.  2.  Je  te  le  donne.  3.  II 
me  le  donne.  4.  Je  le  lui  donne.  5.  Vous  ne  me  le  don- 
nez  pas.  6.  Avez-vous  le  fusil  ?  Oui,  je  I'ai.  7.  Oii  sont 
les  essuie-mains  ?  8.  Nous  ne  les  avons  pas.  9.  M'aimez- 
Tous  Marie  ?  Oui,  je  t'aime.  10.  Nous  vous  disons  ce  que 
nous  pensons.  11.  Elle  ne  nous  ecrit  pas  souvent.  12.  Plus 
une  chose  est  difiicile,  plus  il  est  honorable.  13.  Elle  se 
donne  du  plaisir.  14.  lis  s'entre-parlent.  15.  Je  te  le  dis 
du  fond  de  mon  ca3ur.  16.  La  revolution  I'a  fait  a  son 
image.  17.  L' Amour  est  cclui  de  tons  les  dieux  qui  salt 
le  mieux  le  chemin  du  Parnasse. 


Vocabulary. 
Verb  dire,  '  to  say,'  Present  Indicative. 


je  dis,  I  say. 
tu  dis,  thou  sayest. 
il  dit,  he  says. 
elle  dit,  slie  says. 

le  fusil,  the  gun. 
pensons,  we  think. 
ce  que,  that  which. 
fait,  made, 
parlent,  they  talk. 


nous  disons,  we  say.  I  dit-il  ?  says  he  ? 

vous  dites,  you  say.  dites-vous  ?  say  you  ? 

ils  disent,  they  say.  I  dit-elle  ?  says  she  ? 

elles  disent,  "      "  j  dis-je  ?  do  I  say  ? 


ecrit,  writes. 

souvent,  often. 

la  chose,  the  thing. 

celui,  the  one. 

le  plaisir,  pleasure. 


entre,  between, 
le  fond,  bottom, 
tons,  all. 
sait,  knows. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Are  you  giving  it  to  me  ?  2.  He  is  giving  himself 
pleasure.  3.  We  are  saying  it  to  one  another.  4.  I  am 
older  than  you  by  ten  years.  5.  Do  you  love  the  cliikl  ? 
Yes,  I  love  him.  6.  I  love  her.  I  do  not  love  her  (liim, 
it).    7.  Where  is  the  gun,  Mary  ?    I  am  saying  to  you 


EXEKCISES. 


171 


where  it  is  (telling).   8.  Are  all  honorable  things  difficult  ? 
Yes,  they  are  the  most  difficult. 

EXEROISI]   18. 

Sec.  110. — Personal  Pronouns  continued. 

1.  Avez-vous  quelques  verites  a  dire  aux  rois,  ne  lesleur 
dites  pas.  2.  Un  ecrivain  qui  s'aime,  forme  tous  ses  heros 
semblables  a  soi-meme  (Boileau).  3.  N'allons  point  nous 
appliquer  a  nous-memes  les  traits  d'une  censure  generale 
(Moliere).  4.  !fites-vous  la  soeur  de  mon  oncle  ?  Oui,  je 
la  suis.  Oui,  je  le  suis.  5.  II  est,  il  est  encore  des  mortels 
genereux.  6.  II  me  vient  une  idee.  7.  Pourquoi  done 
vient-il  par  ici  tant  de  jeunes  gentilshommes  ?  (V.  Hugo). 
8.  Les  objets  de  nos  Yoeux  le  sont  de  nos  plaisirs  (Oor- 
neille).  9.  II  est  de  grands  hommes  qui  ne  le  sont  que 
par  des  vertus.  10.  Cette  f  emme  est  belle,  et  le  sera  long- 
temps.  11.  Je  me  regarde  comme  la  mere  de  cet  enfant ; 
je  la  suis  de  coeur,  je  la  suis  par  ma  tendresse  pour  lui 
(Academy.) 

Vocabulary. 


la  verite,  truth. 
1' ecrivain,  writer. 
le  trait,  feature, 
gentilhomme,  gentle- 
man, 
le  voeu,  vow. 
la  tendresse,  tender- 


quelque,  some, 
dire,  to  say. 
forme,  forms, 
semblable,  similar, 
appliquer,  apply, 
genereux,  generous, 
vient,  comes. 


pourquoi,  why. 
done,  then, 
tant,  so  many. 
par,  by. 

longtemps,  long, 
ici,  here, 
ne— que,  only. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Are  you  the  mother  of  this  child  ?  I  am.  2.  There 
is  coming  here  a  very  old  man.  3.  Is  he  a  great  man  ? 
He  is  (so).  4.  Are  the  features  of  the  censure  general  or 
special  ?  (particulier).  5.  How  many  gentlemen  are  there 
in  the  garden  ?  95.  6.  Your  friend  is  a  great  man  ;  but 
he  is  only  so  by  his  virtues. 


EXERCISE    19. 

Sees.  111-113. — Personal  Pronouns  continued. 

1.  Je  suis  plus  grand  que  toi,  qu'elle.     2.  Qui  est  ici, 


172 


FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 


Ini  ou  elle  ?  C'est  moi.  3.  Mon  frcre  et  eux  sont  ici. 
4.  Je  suis  mille'fois  plus  criminel  que  lui  (Racine).  5.  Eux 
seuls  sont  exempt  de  la  loi  commune.  6.  Ce  n'est  pas  moi, 
dit-il,  c'est  lui.  7.  Toi  et  moi,  nous  sommes  bons  amis. 
8.  Moi,  Je  suis  americain.  9.  Qui  parle  ?  Eux.  10.  La 
vertu  est  aimable  en  soi.  11.  Les  ajiiiants  sont  entre  eux 
un  peuple  bien  bizarre.  12.  Vos  chevaux  ont  faim.  Don- 
nez-leur  du  foin.  13.  On  aime  les  autres  rarement  plus 
que  soi.  14.  0  fortune  !  tu  fais  de  nous  un  jeu.  15.  Y 
a-t-il  des  corps  subtils  en  soi  ?  16.  Chacun  ne  songe  plus 
qu'a  soi  (Rousseau). 

Vocabulary. 


la  fois,  the  time. 
I'apiant,  lover, 
le  peuple,  people. 
le  faim,  hunger, 
le  foin,  hay. 
I'autre,  the  other. 
le  jeu,  game,  sport. 


le  corps,  body. 
que,  than, 
criminel,  criminal, 
seul,  only,  alone, 
commune,  common, 
aimable,  lovely, 
bizarre,  queer,  odd. 


entre,    between, 
among. 

on,  one,  people. 

rarement,  rarely. 

fais,  do. 

j  subtil,  light,  subtle. 
I  chacun,  each  one. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Are  you  giving  it  to  me  ?  2.  Do  not  give  it  to  him. 
3.  Your  dog  is  hungry.  Give  him  some  water.  4.  She 
and  I  do  good  to  each  other.  5.  We  are  the  sport  of  for- 
tune. 6.  Do  you  love  others  more  than  yourself  ?  7.  Who 
is  more  criminal  than  they  ?    Than  we  ? 


EXSRCISE  20. 

Sees.  114-116. — Personal  Pronouns  continued. 

1.  Dieu  vient  de  I'appeler  a  lui.  2.  Je  ne  vous  fais  pas 
des  reproches  frivoles.  3.  De  qui  parlez  vous  ?  Je  leur 
parle,  je  parle  d'elle,  je  parle  a  elle.  4.  Je  desire  vous 
acheter  votre  chien  ;  vendez-le-moi.  5.  II  desire  votre 
chien.  Ne  le  lui  donnez-pas.  6.  Je  vous  le  donne  pour 
six  francs.  7.  Je  donne  plus  que  vous  et  qu'elle.  8.  Votre 
montre  est  magnifique  ;  vendez-la  moi.  9.  Mon  avocat  et 
moi,  nous  sommes  de  cet  avis.  10.  Moi  seul  a  votre 
amour  ai  su  la  conserver.  11.  Mon  pere  est  endormi.  Ne 
le  parlez  pas.  12.  II  n'a  rien  a  lui  ;  tout  est  a  ses  amis 
(Lamennais).      13.  Un  bienfait  porte  sa  recomjiense  en 


EXERCISES. 


173 


soi  (Acad.)-  14.  L' Anglais  porte  partout  sa  patrie  avec 
lui  (St.  Pierre).  15.  Fussent-ils  innocent,  leur  trouvera 
des  crimes  (Racine).  16.  Qui  plus  de  moi  desire  vous  voir 
une  volonte  ferme. 


vient  de  (comes  from), 

has  just. 
appeler,  to  call, 
fais,  make,  do. 
acheter,  buy. 
porte,  carries. 
la  patrie,  country. 


Vocabulary. 

trouvera,  will  find, 
vendez,  sell, 
la  montre,  the  watch, 
magnifique,  magnifi- 
cent. 
le  bienfait,  the  favor. 
avec,  with. 


la  volonte,  the  will, 
avis,  opinion,  advice, 
seul,  alone, 
endormi,  asleep, 
partout,  everywhere, 
fussent,  were  they, 
ferme,  firm. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Are  you  giving  me  your  horses  and  your  dogs  ?  I 
give  them  to  you.  2.  We  are  the  sport  of  fortune. 
3.  God  has  just  called  him  to  heaven.  4.  Do  not  make 
frivolous  reproaches  to  me.  5.  I  am  giving  more  money 
than  you  and  thou  and  he  and  she.  6.  Sell  me  your  horse. 
Here  are  thirty  francs.  7.  Do  not  sell  him  to  him  or  to 
her  or  to  them,  but  give  him  to  us.  8.  I  am  not  speaking 
of  him  or  of  her.  9.  Will  he  find  crimes  for  them  ?  Has 
he  a  firm  will  ? 


EXERCISE  21. 

Sees.  117-118. — Possessive  Pronouns. 

1.  J'aime  vos  grands  et  vos  petits  enfans.  2.  Ma  tante, 
ou  etes-vous  ?  Je  suis  dans  ma  chambre.  3.  Avez-vous 
un  de  mes  livres  ?  4.  Monsieur  votre  pere,  est-il  ^  la 
maison  ?  5.  Madame  votre  epouse,  oii  est-elle  ?  6.  Je 
I'aime  comme  mon  propre  frere.  7.  Quel  malheur  est  le 
notre !  8.  Mais  j'ai  les  miens,  la  cour,  le  peuple,  a  con- 
tenter.  9.  Voici  une  de  mes  nieces,  que  je  vous  presente. 
10.  II  est  douloureux  de  se  separer  de  ses  amis,  quand 
c'est  pour  un  long  voyage.  11.  J'ai  vu  Londres  ;  ses  pa- 
lais,  ses  eglises,  ses  ecoles,  ses  monuments  n'ont  rien 
d'extraordinaire.  12.  Je  n'ai  pas  vendu  du  leur,  mais  j'ai 
vendu  du  votre,  et  nn  pen  du  mien.     13.  Notre  merits 


174  .  FREKCH   GRAMMAR. 

nous  attire  la  loiiange  des  lionnetes  gens,  et  notre  etoile 
celle  du  public  (La  Eochefoucauld). 


Vocabulary. 


la  chambre,  cliamber,  room, 
une  epouse,  wife,  spouse, 
propre,  own,  proper, 
le  malheur,  misfortune, 
une  ecole,  school, 
le  merite,  merit, 
contenter,  satisfy. 
presente,  introduce, 
vendu,  sold. 


la  cour,  court. 

le  peuple,  people. 

la  niece,  niece. 

le  voyage,  journey. 

la  louange,  praise. 

une  etoile,  star. 

douloureux,  painful. 

separer,  to  separate. 

les  miens,  my  own  (people). 


English  into  French. 

1.  Are  your  children  large  or  small  ?  2.  Where  is  your 
uncle  ?     He  is  in  the  garden.     3.  One  of  my  aunts  is  ill. 

4.  Our  misfortunes  are  great.  5.  It  is  i)ainful  to  be 
separated  from  one's  own  friends.  6.  Have  you  seen  the 
palaces  and  churches  of  Paris  ?    Are  they  extraordinary  ? 

EXERCISS  22. 

Sees.  119-120.— Demonstrative  Pronouns  "Ce"  and  "Celui" 

1.  Quel  est  ce  cri  ?  2.  Cette  femme  est  capricieuse. 
3.  Les  maladies  de  I'esprit  sont  plus  dangereuses  que  celles 
du  corps.     4.  Qui  sont  ceux  qui  pretendent  a  cette  place? 

5.  Celle-ci  me  coute  dix  mille  francs,  et  celle-la  douze 
mille.  6.  Get  enfant  que  vous  voyez  au  bout  de  ce  peu- 
plier,  c'est  Jules.  7.  Le  moment  du  peril  est  celui  du 
courage.  8.  Qui  trahit  son  pays,  celui-la  est  infame. 
9.  Ces  livres  sont  ceux  que  j'aime  taut.  10.  L'ame  et  le 
corps  out  une  role  bien  different ;  celle-la  commande,  et 
celui-ci  obeit.  11.  Voici  mon  jiarapluie  et  celui  de  ma 
soeur.  12.  Cirez  mes  souliers  et  ceux  de  mon  ami. 
13.  Ceux  qui  connaissent  la  race  romaine  ceux-la  sentiront 
le  recit  de  Tite-Live  (Michelet). 


Vocabulary. 


le  cri,  the  cry. 

la  maladie,  disease. 

I'esprit,  mind. 


le  corps,  body, 
le  franc,  franc. 
le  bout,  end,  base. 


EXESCISES.  175 


le  peuplier,  ppplar. 
le  peril,  danger. 
le  pays,  country. 
la  r6le,  part,  role. 
le  Soulier,  slioe. 
le  recit,  narrative. 
Tite-liive,  Livy. 
capricieuse,  capricious. 


coute,  costs, 
trahit,  betrays, 
iiofame,  infamous, 
tant,  so  much, 
obeit,  obeys. 
cirez,  black,  polish, 
connaissent,  know, 
sentiront,  will  feel,  enjoy. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Who  is  it  that  betrays  his  country  ?  2.  He  who  is 
infamous.  3.  What  is  good  often  costs  much.  4.  This 
is  yours,  but  I  have  sold  my  own.  5.  This  poplar  is  159 
years  old.  6.  She  who  is  capricious  is  unfortunate.  7.  The 
history  of  Livy  is  the  one  I  like  so  much. 

EXERCISE    23. 

Sec.  121.— The  Neuter  Demonstrative  "  Ce." 

1.  Ce  que  je  crains  le  plus,  c'est  le  trahison.  2.  Ne 
faites  pas  cela  !  3.  Oe  qui  coute  pen  est  trop  cher  quand 
il  n'est  d'aucun  usage.  4.  Je  sais  qui  c'est.  5.  Ce  qui 
I'arrete,  c'est  la  peur.  6.  Voila  ce  que  j'aime.  7.  Oeci 
est  pour  vous  et  cela  pour  moi.  8.  Ce  n'etait  pas  un  leger 
fardeau  que  I'episcopat  (Chateaubriand).  9.  C'est  etre 
criminel  que  d'etre  miserable.  10.  C'est  a  vous,  mon 
esprit,  a  qui  je  veux  parler  (Boileau).  11.  Ce  n'est  de  ces 
sortes  de  respects  dont  je  vous  parle.  12.  Celui  qui  dit 
qu'il  connait  Dieu  et  ne  garde  pas  ses  commandemens, 
c'est  un  menteur  (Bossuet).  13.  Ce  qu'on  souffre  avec  le 
moins  de  patience,  ce  sont  les  perfidies,  les  trahison s,  les 
noirceurs.  14.  Avez-vous  vendu  de  notre  ble  on  du  leur  ? 
15.  J'ai  vendu  du  votre.  16.  Chaque  science  a  ses  prin- 
cipes. 

Vocabulary. 


le  trahison,  treason. 

I'usage,  use. 

la  peur,  fear. 

le  fardeau,  burden. 

le  respect,  consideration. 


le  menteur,  liar, 
la  perfidie,  perfidy, 
la  noire  eur,  foul  deed, 
le  ble,  wheat. 
le  principe,  principle. 


176  FKEN"CH   GKAMMAE. 


je  craina,  I  fear. 

vous  faites,  you  do. 

il  coiite,  he,  it  costs. 

il  arr^te,  he,  it  stops, 

il  etait,  he,  it  was. 

je  veux,  I  wish. . 
qui,  who. 
^tre,  to  be. 
quand,  when. 


pour,  for. 
parler,  to  speak, 
aucun,  any. 


il  connait,  he  knows, 
il  garde,  he  keeps. 
il  soufiEire,  he  suffers. 
je  s£ds,  I  know, 
trop,  too,  too  much, 
char,  dear. 

leger,  light. 

peu,  little. 

dent,  of  which. 


English  into  French. 

1.  That  which  is  good  often  costs  much.  2.  Is  this 
wheat  yours  or  mine  ?  3.  Tliis  science  costs  more  than 
that.  4.  It  is  to  you  tliat  I  am  telling  this.  5.  Of  what 
kind  of  considerations  does  he  speak  ?  6.  Treason  is  not 
a  light  burden.  7.  What  do  you  fear  most,  perfidy  or 
dark  deeds  ?    8.  I  know  the  principles  of  that  science. 

EXERCISE   24. 

Sees.  122-123. — Interrogative  Pronouns,  "  Quel,  Qui,  Que, 
Quoi" 

1.  De  qui  est-ce  que  vous  rirez  tant  ?  2.  Pour  qui,  un 
avare,  amasse-t-il  d^s  richesses.  3.  Que  sont  les  hommes 
devant  Dieu  ?  4.  A  quoi  pensez-vous  ?  5.  J'ignore  quoi, 
oil,  et  comment.  6.  Quelle  heure  est-il  ?  7.  Quelle  folie 
d'agir  ainsi  !  8.  A  qui  est  ce  parapluie-la  ?  9.  A  quoi 
sert  d'avoir  un  roi  ?  (Fenelon).   10.  Que  sert  la  politique  ? 

11.  Moi,  que  je  lui  prononce  un  arr^t  si  severe  !  (Racine). 

12.  Que  veux-tu  que  nous  fassions  ?  13.  A.  qui  done 
veux-tu  que  ce  soit  ?  14.  Mais  que  veux-tu  qui  nous 
arrive  de  pis  ?  15.  Que  la  terre  est  petite  a  qui  la  voit 
des  cieux  !  (Delille).  16.  Que  les  moeurs  du  pays  ou  vous 
vivez  sont  saintes,  qui  arrachent  a  Fattentat  des  plus  vils 
esclaves  !  (Montesquieu). 

Vocabulary. 

que,  like  the  English  *  that,'  maybe  a  conjunction  as  well  a  pronoun. 
Tavare,  miser.  I  una  heure,  an  hour.     1  la  politique,     policy, 

richesses,  riches.         |  la  folie,  folly.  |     politics. 


EXEKCISES. 


177 


un  arr^t,  judgment. 
la  terre,  earth, 
les  cieux,  sky. 
le  pays,  country. 
I'esclave,  slave. 
I'attentat,  attempt, 
avoir,  to  liave. 
vous  rirez.you  laugh. 
il  amasse.hepilesup. 
agir,  to  do,  act. 


vous  pensez,  you 
think. 

j 'ignore,  I  am  igno- 
rant. 

nous  fassions,  w  e 
should  do. 

ils  arrachent,  they 
take  away. 

vous  vivez,  you  live. 

11  sert,  it  is  of  use. 


tu  veux,thou  wishest, 
il  voit,  he  sees. 
devant,  before, 
comment,  how. 
ainsi,  thus, 
severe,  severe, 
pis,  worse, 
saint,  holy. 
vil,  vile,  base. 


English,  into  French. 

1.  To  whom  are  you  speaking  ?  2.  Who  is  there  wlio 
has  no  principles  ?  3.  Who  is  the  greatest  miser  in  tlie 
world  ?  4.  Of  what  use  is  a  slave  ?  5.  Whom  do  you 
love  ?  6.  What  do  you  like  ?  7.  What  are  you  laughing 
so  much  about  ?    8.  What  do  I  wish  you  and  her  to  do  ? 


rll-^ 


EXERCISE    25. 


Sec.  124. — Interrogatives,  "Lequel,  Que'st-ce,"  &c. 

1.  Lequel  de  vos  fils  est  malade  ?  2.  Auquel  de  ces 
ecoliers  donnez-vous  le  prix  ?  3.  Lequel  est  le  plus  heu- 
reux  dans  ce  monde,  du  sage  avec  sa  raison,  ou  du  devot 
dans  son  delire  ?  (Rousseau).  4.  Apres  cela  tu  jugeras 
toi-meme,  lequel  vaut  mieux  de  ce  que  tu  dis,  ou  de  ce  que 
tu  fais.  5.  Qui  est-ce  que  vous  demandez  ?  6.  Qu'est-ce 
qui  vous  fait  mal  ?  7.  Laquelle  de  ces  dames  est  votre 
epouse  ?  8.  Est-ce  votre  desir  d'aller  par  la  ?  Oui  ce  Test. 
9.  Qu'est-ce  que  vous  voulez  que  je  vous  donne  ?  10.  Est-ce 
un  autel  aux  dieux  des  champs  ?  11.  II  a  ete  vole  la  nuit ; 
mais  aussi  pourquoi  n'a-t-il  personne  pour  garder  sa  mai- 
son  ?  (Acad.)  12.  Que  m'importe  quel  est  le  faible  ou  le 
puissant  ?  (Dumas).  13.  Que  faites-vous  la  ?  14.  En  quel 
etat  sont  les  choses  ? 


Vocabulary. 

Verb  Faire,  'to  do,'  present  tense. 


je  fais,  I  do,  make. 
tu  fais,  thou  doest. 
il  fait,  he  does. 


nous  faisons,  we  do. 
vous  faites,  you  do. 
ils  font,  they  do. 


elles  font,  they  do. 
elle  fait,  she  does. 
fait-il?  does  he? 


178 


FREKCH   GEAMMAE. 


Tecolier,  scholar, 
le  prix,  prize,  price. 
le  sage,  wise  man. 
la  raison,  reason. 
la  dame,  lady. 
I'autel,  altar. 
le  champ,  field. 
la  nuit,  night. 
la  chose,  thing. 


le  fils,  son. 
le  devot,  devotee. 
le  delire,  extacy. 
le  desir,  desire, 
voulez,  you  wish, 
vole,  robbed, 
aussi,  also. 
pourquoi,  why. 
garder,  watch. 

English  into  French.. 


il  importe,  it  matters, 
faible,  weak, 
puissant,  powerful, 
la,  there. 
I'etat,  state. 
jugeras,  shalt  judge. 
il  vaut,  it  is  worth, 
oui,  yes. 
mal,  harm. 


1.  Which  of  your  dogs  is  the  largest  ?  2.  Which  one 
of  these  gentlemen  is  your  father  ?  3.  The  one  of  those 
coats  which  I  like  best  is  the  bhie  one.  4.  What  are  ihey 
doing  here?  5.  Who  is  the  god  of  the  fields?  6.  Has  he 
an  altar  there?  7.  It  matters  not  to  me  which  one  you 
have. 

EXERCISE  26. 

Sees.  126-128. — Relative  Pronouns. 

1.  Le  mensonge  est  un  vice  pour  lequel  on  a  beaucoup 
d'horreur.  2.  II  ne  faut  pas  tenir  les  promesses  qui  sont 
nuisibles  d  ceux  a  qui  on  les  fait.  3.  Monsieur  Pierre, 
avec  le  fusil  duquel  {or  de  qui)  je  chasse,  est  malade. 
4.  Le  temps  que  nous  perdrons  est  irreparable.  5.  J'aime 
les  chiens  qui  sont  fideles,  et  le  chat  qui  prend  les  souris. 
6.  Ce  sont  eux  qui  ont  froid.  7.  II  faut  donncr  a  chacun 
le  sien.  8.  Un  jour  sur  les  evenemens  duq\iel  il  faut  jcter 
une  voile.  9.  Celui  qui  amasse  les  richesses,  ne  sait  pas 
pour  qui  il  les  amasse.  10.  Ceux  qui  se  con tentent  de  ])eu 
sont  heureux.  11.  Mais  nem'es  tu  pas  fiancee  ?  Je  le  suis. 
12.  Si  vous  ^tes  bavarde,  votre  frere  ne  Test  pas  moins. 


il  faut,  it  is  necessary, 
you  must. 

le  mensonge,  lie,  ly- 
ing. 

la  promesse,  promise. 

Pierre,  Peter. 


Vocabulary. 

le  fusil,  gun. 
le  chat,  cat. 
la  souris,  mouse. 
le  froid,  cold, 
tenir,  to  hold, 
fideles,  faithful. 


perdrons,    we    shall 

lose, 
chacun,  each  one. 
fiancee,  affianced, 
horreur,  horror. 
le  jour,  day. 


EXERCISES. 


179 


I'evenement,  event. 
la  voile,  veil. 
le  peu,  little. 
bavarde,  loquacious. 


beaucoup,  much, 
nuisible,  injurious. 
11  chassej  lie  hunts. 
il  prend,    he    takes, 
catches. 


Jeter,  to  throw, 
de,  with, 
lis   contentent, 
content. 


they 


English  into  French. 

1.  What  is  the  cat  good  for  ?  She  catches  the  mice 
which  eat  our  bread.  2.  With  whose  gun  are  you  hunt- 
ing ?  3.  With  that  of  my  friend  Peter,  who  is  also  a  lo- 
quacious person.  4.  For  whom  does  the  miser  amass 
riches  ?    Often  for  those  whom  he  does  not  love. 


EXERCISE  27. 

Sees.  129-131.— The  Substantive  Relative.—"  Dont,"  and 
"On." 

1.  Le  petit  garpon  dont  le  pere  est  mort  est  maintenant 
chez  nous.  2.  Apres  I'existence  de  Dieu,  il  n'y  a  rien 
dont  je  doute  moins  que  de  I'immort'alite  de  Fame.  3.  Oe 
que  j 'admire  le  plus  dans  I'elephant,  c'est  cette  pompe  dont 
il  saisit  sa  nourriture.  4.  Ce  qui  est  beau  a  voir,  c'est  la 
chute  du  Niagara.  5.  Qu'est-ce  que  c'est  qu'un  peuple 
en  furie?  (V.  Hugo).  6.  Insense  que  j'etais,  de  croire  a 
leur  bonne  foi!  (Acad.).  7.  Le  fripon  qu'il  etait,  m'em- 
porte  dix  mille  francs  (Acad.).  8.  Voihi  ce  que  c'est. 
9.  Fuir  n'est  un  deshonneur  que  pour  ceux  dont  on  pent 
soup9onner  la  valeur  (Orebillon).  10.  C'est  une  grace  ou 
je  n'osais  pretendre.     11.  Par  ou  reussira-t-il  ? 


mort,  dead, 
chez,  with, 
doute,  doubt, 
moins,  less. 
saisit,  grasps, 
voir,  to  see. 
croire,  believe. 


Vocabulary. 

fuir,  run  away, 
maintenant,  now. 
soup9onner,  expect, 
pretendre,  pretend, 
reussira,  will  succeed, 
insense,  senseless. 
emporte,  carry  off. 


osais,  should  dare, 
la  nourriture,  food, 
la  chute,  fall. 
la  furie,  rage. 
le  fripon,  rogue. 
la  valeur,  courage. 
la  grace,  grace. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Who   does   not   admire  the  fall  of  Niagara,  whose 
height  is  198  feet.     2.  Rogue  that  he  is,  he  will  not  sue- 


180 


FEENCH   GRAMMAR. 


ceed.  3.  The  lady  wliose  child  is  dead  is  very  unfortunate. 
4.  How  foolish  you  are,  to  believe  in  the  good  faith  of 
that  loquacious  fellow  ! 

EXERCISE  28. 

Sec.  132. — "En"  used  as  a  Pronoun. 

1.  La  fortune  a  son  prix;  Fimin-udent  en  abuse,  I'hypo- 
crite  en  medit,  et  I'honnete  honinie  en  use.  2.  De  mes 
sujets  seduits  qu'il  comble  la  misere  ;  II  en  est  I'ennemi, 
j'en  dois  etre  le  pere  (Voltaire).  3.  Vous  avez  de  bon 
cafe;  donnez-leur-en.  4.  Demain!  le  temps  est  court,  et 
le  terme  est  prochain;  il  en  faut  profiter.  5.  N'y  a-t-il 
pas  de  terre  dans  Tunivers  pour  en  donner  a  tons  les 
hommes?  6.  Les  limites  des  sciences  sont  comme  I'hori- 
zon  ;  plus  on  en  approche  plus  elles  reculent.  7.  Les 
causes  de  notre  elevation,  le  sont  souvent  de  notre  mine. 
8.  Disez-vous  que  nous  en  sommes  les  auteurs?  Oui,  vous 
I'etes.  9.  II  est  de  grands  hommes  qui  le  sont  par  les 
vertus. 

Vocabulary. 

medit,  slanders, 
seduit,  seduced, 
comble,  fills  up. 
je  dois,  I  ought, 
demain,  to-morrow, 
prochain,  near. 


le  prix,  price,  value, 
le  sujet,  subject. 
la  misere,  misery. 
le  terme,  end,  term. 
la  terre,  land,  earth. 
la  ruine,  ruin. 


reculent,  withdraw, 
court,  short, 
pour,  for. 
tons,  all, 
comme,  like, 
auteur,  author. 


English  into  French. 

1.  How  much  land  have  you?  Give  me  some.  2.  Time 
has  its  value.  Theprudent  does  not  abuse  it.  3.  Do  you 
say  that  I  am  the  author  of  your  misery?  Yes,  you 
are.  4.  Who  is  a  hypocrite?  He  who  slanders  fortune. 
5.  Where  are  the  boundaries  of  science?  Who  approaches 
them? 

EXERCISE  29. 

Sees.  133-5. — "Y"  as  a  Pronoun,  and  the  Indefiinite 
"On." 

1.  Vous  avez  pen  de  bien;  joignez-y  ma  fortune. 
2.  Chargez-vous  de  cette  enfant;   donnez-lui  vos  soins. 


EXERCISES. 


O'NIVERSITY 


3.  Chargez-vous  decette  affaire;  donnez-y  vos  soiiis.  4.  Ne 
soyez  a  la  cour,  si  yous  voulez  a  plaire,  Ni  fade  adula- 
teur  ni  parleur  trop  sincere  (La  Fontaine).  5.  On  par- 
donne  aisement  le  mal  involontaire.  6.  On  n'cst  des  juifs. 
7.  N'est-on  jamais  tyran  qu'avcc  le  diademe?  8.  Quitte-t- 
on  aisement,  pour  jamais,  ce  qu'on  aime?  9.  Quoiqiie  je 
parle  beaucoup  de  vous,  ma  fille,  j'y  pense  encore  davan- 
tage  (Mme.  Sevigne).  10.  On  finit  par  oii  Ton  devait 
commencer.  11.  En  quelque  pays  que  j'aie  ete,  j'y  ai 
yecu,  comme  j'avais  du  y  passer  ma  vie. 


le  bien,  goods,  prop- 
erty. 

le  soin,  care,  atten- 
tion. 

la  cour,  the  court. 

adulateur,  flatterer. 

parleur,  speaker. 

aisement,  easily. 

le  tyran,  tyrant. 

quoique,  although. 


Vocabulary. 

beaucoup,  much, 
davantage,  more, 
soy ez-vous,  he,  be  ye. 
trop,  too,  too  much. 
il  quitte,  he  leaves. 
il  finit,  he  ends. 
par  ou,  where. 
il  devait,  he  ought, 
quelque,  whatever, 
vecu,  lived. 


dd,      been      obliged, 

ought, 
joignez,  unite. 
fade,  insipid, 
avec,  with, 
jamais,  ever, 
plaire,  to  please, 
en,  in. 
avais,  had. 
ete,  been. 


English  into  French. 

1.  Unite  your  fortune  to  mine  and  giye  your  care  to  it. 
2.  What  do  they  say  at  Paris  ?  3.  You  are  their  enemy ; 
but  I  ought  to  be  their  father.  4.  How  many  countries 
haye  you  been  in  ?    How  haye  you  lived  in  them  ? 

EXERCISE  30. 

Sees.  136-9. — "Personne,  Rien,  Aucun,  Tout." 

1.  Personne  a-t-il  jamais  raconte  plus  naivement  que  La 
Fontaine?  (Kestaut).  2.  Oette  place  lui  convient  mieux 
qu'a  personne  (Landais).  3.  Que  vous  a  coute  cela  ? 
Rien.  4.  II  semble  que  cela  se  soutienne  sur  rien.  5.  Je 
compte  cet  homme-la  pour  rien  (Acad.).  6.  Je  doute 
qu'aucun  de  vous  le  fasse.  7.  H  a  obtenu  ce^  qu'il  de- 
mandait  sans  aucuns  frais  (Acad.).  8.  Aucuns  a  coups  de 
pierre  poursuivirent  le  dieu  (La  Fontaine).  9.  Toute  sa 
famille  est  en  bon  sante.     10.  En  toute  chose  il  faut  con- 


182  FEE}!?-CH   GEAMMAE. 

Biderer  la  fin  (La  Fontaine).  11.  Les  premiers  Chretiens, 
tons  egaiix  et  tons  obscurs,  gouvernaient  secretement  leur 
societe  a  la  pliiralite  des  voix  (Voltaire). 


Vocabulary. 


jamais,  ever, 
raconte,  related, 
naivement,  naturally. 
il  convient,  it  suits. 
semble,  seems. 
la  pierre,  stone, 
egal,  equal. 


compte,  count, 
fasse,  may  do. 
obtenu,  obtained, 
frais,  expenses. 
le  coup,  the  blow. 
la  fin,  tbe  end. 


poursuivirent,  pursued. 

English  into  French. 
1.  Nobody  is  any  prettier  than  your  little  sister.  2.  Who 
has  told  stories  better  than  La  Fontaine  ?  No  one.  3.  Is 
the  world  sustained  upon  nothing  ?  So  it  seems.  4.  At 
how  much  do  you  reckon  that  man  ?  Nothing  at  all. 
5.  In  everything  some  expenses  must  be  considered.  6.  I 
doubt  that  any  of  them  can  do  anything.  7.  Were  the 
first  Christians  entirely  equal  ? 

EXERCISE   31. 

Sees.  140-143.—'*  Tel,  Meme,  Nul,  Autre." 

1.  Pour  ^tre  heureux  ou  malheureux  il  faut  se  croire 
tel  (Acad.).  2.  Sa  memoire  est  telle. qu'il  n'oublie  jamais 
rien  (Acad.).  3.  Tel  homme  est  recompense  qui  meritait 
d'etre  puni  (Acad.).  4.  II  fait  cela  de  lui-m^me.  5.  Ce 
mensonge  n'a  rien  qui  ne  soit  innocent.  Les  dieux  memos 
ne  peuvent  le  condamner.  6.  Ce  n'est  qu'une  seule  et 
meme  chose.  7.  Les  auteurs  des  livres  nuls  sont  respon- 
sables  envers  Dieu  du  temps  qu'ils  fontperdre  aux  lecteurs 
(Boistc).  8.  Nul  plus  que  moi  ne  respecte  ce  qu'il  y  a  de 
beau  dans  des  certaines  situations  (Lamartine).  9.  Des 
deux  livres  que  vous  me  demandez,  voici  I'un,  voila  I'autre 
(Acad.).  10.  Connaissez-vous  mon  autre  soeur  ?  11.  Tout 
le  peuple  suivit  Virginie,  les  uns  par  curiosite,  les  autres 
par  consideration  pour  Icilius  (Vertot).  12.  Votre  habit 
est  use,  il  faut  en  acheter  un  autre  (Acad.).  13.  L'autre 
jour. 


EXEKCISES. 


183 


il  oublie,  he  forgets, 
puni,  punished. 
il  soit,  he,  it  may  be. 
ils  peuvent,  they  can. 
seule,  alone,  only. 


Vocabnlary. 

envers,  toward, 
perdre,  to  lose. 
le  lecteur,  reader, 
connaissez,  yon  know 
suivit,  followed. 


I'habit,  coat. 

use,  worn  out 

acheter,  buy. 

le  jour,  day. 

la  me  moire,  memory. 


[Note. — After  this  no  English-French  exercises  will  be 
given.  The  teacher  can  easily  obtain  an  abundance,  suited 
to  the  needs  of  each  class,  by  combining  words  given  in 
the  French-English  exercises,  or  already  known. 

No  exercises  are  give  on  the  form  of  the  verb,  regular 
or  irregular.  While  these  forms  are  being  learned,  the 
class  should  take  a  thorough  review  of  previous  lessons. 

References  will  be  given,  in  the  remaining  exercises  and 
in  the  Reader,  in  connection  with  every  peculiar  verb- 
form.  ] 

EXERCISE     32. 

Sec.  147. — Use  of  Auxiliary  Verbs. 

1.  J'aurais  ete  soldat,  si  je  n'etais  pofete.  2.  Quelques 
services  que  vous  m'ayez  rendus,  j'en  ai  ete  reconnaissant 
3.  Votre  ami,  a-t-il  eu  besoin  de  moi  ?  4.  II  y  aura  tou- 
jours  des  guerres  entre  les  hommes.  5.  Quelqu'un  a-t-il 
jamais  doute  serieusement  de  I'existence  de  Dieu  ?  6.  Vous 
avez  re9u  une  lettre  de  votre  pere,  n'est-ce  pas  ?  7.  Les 
lettres  et  I'ecriture  ont  ete  inventee  pour  parler  aux  yeux. 
8.  Que  d'hommes  commettent  les  memes  f antes  qu'ils 
avaient  resolu  d'eviter  !  9.  On  a  souvent  regrette  que 
I'origine  de  presque  toutes  les  nations,  soit  ou  perdue  dans 
les  fables  ou  ensevelie  dans  Tobscurite.  10.  Demetrius, 
informe  que  les  Atheniens  avaient  renverse  ses  statues  ; — 
lis  n'ont  pas,  repliqua-t-il,  renverse  la  valeur  qui  me  les 
a  fait  eriger.  11.  Votre  pere  et  moi,  nous  avons  ete  long- 
temps  ennemis  I'un  de  I'autre  (Fenelon). 


Vocabulary. 


le  soldat,  soldier. 
le  poete,  poet. 
le  service,  favor. 
le  besoin,  need. 


la  guerre,  war. 
I'ecriture,  writing. 
la  faute,  fault. 
la  valeur,  valor. 


184 


FREI^CH   GRAMMAR. 


rendu,  rendered, 
reconnaissant,  grateful, 
doute,  doubted. 
re9u,  received, 
invente,  invented, 
resolu,  resolved, 
presque,  almost. 
perdue,  lost. 


ensevelie,  overwhelmed, 
renverse,  overturned, 
repliqua,  replied. 
fait,  caused,  done. 
I'enaenii,  enemy, 
eriger,  to  erect, 
longtemps,  long, 
entre,  among,  between. 


EXERCISE  33. 

Sec.  166. — Agreement  of  Verbs. 

1.  C'est  eux  qui  ont  bati  cette  maison.  2.  La  vertu  et 
I'ambition  sont  incompatibles.  3.  Son  courage,  son  in- 
trepidite  etonne  les  plus  braves.  4.  Mon  frere  ou  moi 
ferons  la  reponse  a  cette  lettre.  5.  La  plupart  des  femmes 
n'ont  guere  de  principes.  6.  Une  troupe  de  montagnards 
ecrasa  la  maison.  7.  Ni  Tor  ni  la  grandeur  ne  nous  ren- 
dent  heureux.  8.  Le  peuple  accourait  en  foule.  9.  Ni 
I'une  ni  Tautre  maniere  n'est  elegante.  10.  Ce  ne  furent 
plus  les  soldats  de  la  republique.  11.  Tout  le  monde, 
roi,  reine,  ministres,  croit  a  une  conspiration  procbaine. 
12.  La  plupart  (des  liommes)  ont  le  mal  de  mer  quand 
il  font  un  long  voyage.  13.  Le  sommeil  ou  la  mort  sont 
les  meilleurs  contre-poisons  de  nos  douleurs.  14.  Des 
preuves  administrees  de  cette  maniere  perdent  toute  auto- 
rite  dans  mon  esprit  vis-a-vis  de  vos  observations  (Ilous- 
seau). 

Vocabulary. 

la  reponse,  reply, 
la  plupart,  majority. 
la  foule,  crowd. 
la  maniere,  method. 
la  conspiration,  plot. 
le  contre-poison,  an- 
tidote. 


bail,  built, 
etonner,  to  astonish, 
ferons,  will  make, 
ecraser,  to  destroy. 
il  croit,  he  believes. 
la  mer,  the  sea. 
vis-a-vis,  face  to  face. 


le  sommeil,  sleep, 
guere,  hardly, 
rend  re,  to  render, 
accourir,  to  run  up. 
prochaine,  at  hand, 
la  preuve,  proof, 
perdre,  to  lose. 


EXERCISE  34. 

Sees.  167-168.— Government  of  Verbs. 

1.  Sa  probite    I'a  rendu  I'arbitre  de  tons  ses  voisins. 


EXEKCISES.  185 

2.  Une  fois  je  me  serais  vue  riclie  et  paree.  3.  II  abuse 
de  ma  confiance.  4.  N"oiis  nous  defions  de  lui.  5.  Quelque 
incredules  que  soient  les  hommes  pendant  leur  vie,  ils 
cliangent  souvent  de  disposition  quand  la  mort  approche. 

6.  Nous  devons  user  de  diligence,  et  ne  pas  abuser  du 
temps,  paree  que  la  vie  dont  nous  jouissions  est  courte. 

7.  De  faibles  gemissements  remplissent  les  deserts  d'nne 
sombre  et  sauvage  harmonie  (Chateaubriand).  8.  Chacun 
d'eux   resolu   de   vivre   en  gentilhomme   (La  Fontaine). 

9.  A  cette  terrible  vue  le    matelot   s'elanQa   a  la    mer. 

10.  Pourquoi  vous  etes-vous  leve  si  tard?  11.  Vous  vous 
etestrompe,  mon  ami,  n'est-ce  pas?  12.  Ne  vous  moquez 
pas  du  malheur  d'autrui,  au  lieu  d'en  avoir  pitie.  13.  C'est 
la  profonde  ignorance  qui  inspire  le  ton  dogmatique. 
14.  Qu'on  aime  avec  crainte,  on  aime  avec  exces. 


Vocabulary. 


I'arbitre,  arbitrator. 

le  voisin,  neighbor. 

la  confiance,  confidence. 

paree  que,  because. 

court,  short. 

faible,  weak. 

sombre,  dark,  somber. 

sauvage,  savage. 

se  tromper,  to  be  mistaken. 

se  lever,  to  arise,  get  up. 

autrui,  other  people. 

le  lieu,  place. 


une  fois,  once,  at  one  time. 

paree,  jeweled,  adorned. 

se  defier  de,  to  defy. 

pendant,  during. 

le  gemissement,  groaning, 

remplir,  fill,  fulfill. 

resolu,  resolved. 

le  matelot,  sailor. 

se  moquer  de,  to  make  fun  of. 

la  pitie,  pity. 

inspirer,  to  inspire. 

rendre,  to  render. 


EXERCISE  35. 

Sees.  169-170. — ^Use  of  the  Tenses. — ^Present  and  Perfect. 

1.  II  s'assied  et  lui  prend  les  deux  mains  dans  les  siennes. 

2.  Depuis   que  tu   es   avec   moi   je  ne   suis   plus   reine. 

3.  Thucydide  n'a  pas  un  seul  citation.  4.  Caesar,  atteint  de 
plusieurs  coups  a  la  fois,  porte  ses  regards  autour  de  lui  ; 
mais  des  qu'il  voit  Brutus  lever  le  poignard  (Sec.  44)  sur 
lui,  il  quitte  la  main  de  Oasca  qu'il  tenait  encore,  et  se 
couvrant  la  tete  de  sa  robe,  il  livre  son  corps  au  fer  des 
conjures  (Miclielet).  5.  J'ai  eu  une  assez  longue  conversa- 
tion avec  Firmin.     J'ai  commence  par  I'assurer  que  son 


186 


TRENCH   GRAMMAR. 


mariage  avec  toi  etait  certain  ;  il  s'est  obstine  a  me  dire 
que  non  (Sec.  198,  2) ;  et  il  m'a  toujours  repoiidu  la 
dessus  froidement.  Ensuite  je  lui  ai  dit  que  je  voulais  te 
donner  une  dot ;  et  alors  il  m'a  repondu  tres-gaiement, 
il  m'a  saute  au  cou,  et  n'a  plus  doute  de  t'epouser  demain. 
Apres  cela,  je  lui  ai  confie  que  pour  des  raisons  dont  je 
I'ai  fait  juge,  je  ne  pouvais  pas  payer  ta  dot  (Sec.  54,  2)  le 
jour  me  me  de  ton  mariage,  et  il  est  retombe  dans  ses 
doutes.  Oh  !  tout  cela  m'a  paru  clair,  et  j'ai  conclu  que 
Firmin  ne  t'aime  pas  (Florian). 

Vocabulary, 
s'asseyer,  to  sit  down.  J  conclure,  to  conclude. 


prendre,  to  take, 
atteindre,  to  reach, 
porter,  to  carry, 
voir,  to  see. 
lever,  to  raise, 
quitter,  to  let  go,  quit. 
tenir,  to  hold, 
couvrir,  to  cover, 
livrer,  to  deliver, 
s'obstiner,  to  persist, 
vouloir,  to  desire, 
sauter  a,  to  leap  upon, 
epouser,  to  marry. 
confier,  to  confide. 


depuis  que,  since. 

la  coup,  blow. 

le  regard,  look,  glance. 

autour  de,  around. 

des  que,  as  soon  as. 

le  fer,  the  sword,  iron. 

le  coiyure,  conspirator. 

ensuite,  then,  next. 

la  dessus,  thereon. 

froidement,  coldly. 

le  dot,  dowry. 

le  cou,  neck. 

retomber,  to  fall  again. 

paru,  Part,  of  paraitre,  appeared. 


EXERCISE  36. 
Sees.  171-172. — ^TJse  of  Tenses. — Imperfect  and  Preterite. 

1.  Ce  fut  vous  que  refusiites  ma  requite.  2.  Eomulus 
et  Eemus  bdtirent  la  ville  de  Rome,  I'an  753  avant  Jesus- 
Christ  (Sec.  54,  3,  N.).  3.  Elle  con9ut  (Sec.  154)  de 
grandes  esperances.  4.  1^  ous  aper9umes  un  voleur.  5.  La 
paix  qui  avait  etc  jusqu'a  la  le  bienfait  de  ce  regne,  venait 
d'etre  tout  a  coup  compromise.  6.  II  serendit  le  soir  a  la 
Societe  populaire.  II  fut  rcQU  (154)  avec  enthousiasme. 
II  hit  le  discours,  et  les  Jacobins  le  couvrirent  d'a])plau- 
dissemcnts.  II  leur  fit  alors  le  recit  des  attaqucs  qui 
avaient  etc  diregees  contre  lui,  et  leur  dit  pour  les  exciter 
davantage :  Je  suis  pr^t,  s'il  le  faut,  a  boire  la  coupe  do 


EXERCISES. 


187 


Socrate.  Robespierre,  s'ecria  un  depute,  je  la  boirai  avec 
toi  (Mignet).  7.  II  me  prit  done  sur  Tarpon  de  la  selle,  et 
mon  frere  fut  place  de  meme  entre  lesbras  du  domestique. 
Ce  mallieureux  valet  le  serra  si  fort  sur  restomac,  que  I'oii 
rapporta  mon  frere  mourant  (Florian). 


la  requite,  request. 
le  voleur,  robber, 
la  paix,  peace. 
le  bienfait,  blessing. 
le  regne,  reign. 
le  recit,  recital, 
davantage,  more, 
pr^t,  ready. 
la  coupe,  cup. 
le  bras,  arm. 
I'estomac,  stomach. 


Vocabulary. 

le  domestique,  ser- 
vant. 

batir,  to  build. 

concevoir,  to  con- 
ceive. 

apercevoir,  to  per- 
ceive. 

jusqu'a,  up  to,  until. 

compromettre,  to 
compromise. 

recevoir,  to  receive. 


lut,  from  lire,  to  read, 
couvrir,  to  cover  (Sec. 

152). 
diriger,  to  direct, 
boire,  to  drink, 
prit,  from  prendre,  to 

take, 
serrer,  to   press, 

squeeze, 
mourir,  to  die. 
rapporter,  to  report. 


EXERCISE   37. 

Sees.  173-176. — ^TJse  of  Tenses. — ^Pluperfects,  Conditionals, 
&c. 

1.  Ainsi  la  philosopbie  fut  pratiquee  secr^tement  par 
les  pr^tres  ;  c'est  le  premier  pas  ;  elle  fut  etudiee  par 
quelque  hommes  superieurs  de  la  Grece  hors  des  sanctu- 
aires  ;  c'est  le  second  pas  ;  elle  fut  livree  a  la  foule  par  les 
Chretiens  ;  c'est  son  troisieme  et  dernier  pas  (Chateau- 
briand). 2.  Malesherbes  avait  herite  des  vert  us  parlemen- 
taires  (Mignet).  3.  Dans  ma  rage  je  m'elan9ai  vers  lui, 
mais  I'equipage  avait  disparu  (Scribe).  4.  Soyez  sur  qu'il 
justifiera  ce  que  vous  aurez  fait  pour  lui.  5.  Nous  em- 
ploierons  (Sec.  151,  4,)  toutes  nos  forces.  6.  Nous  con- 
vinmes  (Sec.  152)  que  nous  partirions  le  lendemain.  7.  Le 
due  ordonna  que  les  jugemens  civils  seraient  prononces 
par  un  podestat  civil.  8.  Si  I'on  m'en  avait  cru  (Sec. 
199),  tout  n'en  irait  que  mieux.  9.  Jesus-Ohrist  (Sec. 
54,  3,  N.)  a  promis  qu'il  viendrait  juger  les  vivants  et 
les  morts.  10.  Si  nous  aurions  bien  fait,  nous  t'au- 
rions  etrangle.  11.  Pose  le  cas  que  cela  fut,  que  feriez 
vous  ? 


188 


FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 


Vocabulary. 


pratiquer,  to  practise,  cultivate, 
etudier,  to  study, 
hors  de,  outside  of,  beyond. 
livrer,  to  deliver,  give  over, 
heriter,  to  inherit, 
s'elancer,  rush,  (launch  oneself), 
disparaitre,  disappear, 
soyez,  from  §tre,  be  ye. 
justifier,  justify. 
employer,  to  employ, 
convenir,  to  agree. 
le  pr^tre,  priest. 


le  pas,  step. 

le  lendemain,  next  day. 

civil,  civil. 

le  podestat,  judge. 

cru,  from  croire,  believe. 

poser,  to  put,  suppose. 

etrangler,  to  strangle. 

promettre,  to  promise. 

prononcer,  to  pronounce. 

ordonner,  to  order,  decree. 

partir,  to  go  away,  set  out. 


EXERCISE  38. 

Sees.  177-179. — ^Use  of  Tenses  and  Sequence  of  Tenses. 

1.  Dieu  soit  loue.  2.  Le  diable  m'etrangle  si  je  n'aime- 
rais  mienx  vous  savoir  enterre  que  moucliarde  (Le  Sage). 
3.  Ainsi  soit-il.  4.  Pour  grands  que  soient  les  rois  ils 
sont  ce  que  nous  sommes  (Corueille).  5.  Le  tribunal  a 
decide  que  la  donation  etait  nulle.  6.  Ne  vois-tu  pas 
que  I'escalier  est  rompu  ?  7.  Si  Ton  savais  ni6me  que  tu 
a  parle  pour  lui  !  8.  J'en  jugerai  lorsque  je  serai  mieux 
informe.  9.  II  est  vrai  que  pendant  quarante  ans  que  je 
Tai  servi,  je  ne  lui  ai  jamais  rien  vu  faire  de  semblablo 
(De  Vigny).  10.  Si  vous  pardonnez  a  notre  ville,  j'y  re- 
tournerai  plein  de  joie  ;  si  vous  la  condamnez  (Sec.  48),  je 
n'y  rentrerai  jamais  (Chateaubriand).  11.  Dis-leur  qu'ils 
soient  prets  au  besoin.  12,  Ils  oubliaient  qu'ils  eussent 
jamais  eu  du  chagrin. 


louer,  to  praise, 
enterrer,  to  bury, 
ainsi,  thus, 
voir,  to  see. 
informer,  to  inform, 
servir,  to  serve, 
retourner,  to  return, 
rentrer,  to  re-enter, 
oublier,  to  forget. 


Vocabulary. 

le  moucharde,  informer,  spy. 
I'escalier,  staircase, 
vrai,  true, 
pendant,  during, 
semblable,  like,  similar, 
pret,  ready, 
le  besoin,  need,  want, 
le  chagrin,  chagrin,  annoy- 
ance. 


EXERCISES.  189 

EXERCISE  39. 

Sec.  180.— Subjunctive  Mode. 

[Note. — The  Section  on  the  Subjunctive  cannot  well  be 
divided.  It  is  thought  better  that  the  class  should  go  over 
it  several  times,  more  thoroughly  each  time.] 

1.  A  qui  dois-je  que  la  terre  de  France  me  soit  inter- 
dite  ?  2.  S'il  est  vrai  qu'Homere  ait  fait  Virgile,  c'est 
son  plus  belle  ouvrage.  3.  Les  ]^gyptiens  sont  les  premiers 
qui  aient  bien  connu  les  regies  du  gouvernement  (Rousseau): 
4.  Les  Tyriens  furent  les  premiers  qui  dompterent  les 
flots  (Fenelon).  5.  La  meilleure  satire  qu'on  puisse  faire 
des  mauvaises  poetes,  c'est  de  donner  d'excellents  ouvrages 
(Voltaire).  6.  lis  mour^aient  (199)  tons,  soit  que  nous 
les  traitassions  fort  mal,  soit  que  leurs  maladies  fussent 
incurables  (Le  Sage).  7.  J'ai  ete  malheureusement  le 
premier  qui  ait  fait  connaitre  en  France  la  poesie  Anglaise 
(Voltaire).  8.  Je  pris  conge  des  deux  epoux  en  leur  pro- 
testant  que  j'etais  ravi  que  I'hymen  (35,  4)  eut  succede  a 
leurs  longues  amours  (Le  Sage).  9.  Je  ne  sache  pas  qu'il 
y  ait  eu  d'hommes  blancs  devenus  noirs.  10.  L'homme 
est  le  seul  animal  qui  sache  qu'il  doit  mourir.  11.  II  y  a 
pen  d'hommes  qui  sachent  connaitre  leurs  veri tables  in- 
terets  (Acad.).  VZ.  La  pluralite  des  dieux  est  une  chose 
qu'on  ne  pent  s'imaginer  qui  ait  ete  adoptee  par  des 
hommes  de  bon  sens  (Restaut).  13.  Mentor  voulait  une 
grande  quantite  de  jeux  qui  animassent  le  peuple  (Fe- 
nelon). 14.  Laquelle  des  deux  tetes  crois-tu  qui  vaille  le 
mieux  en  ce  moment  ?  (V.  Hugo).  15.  A  tel  prix  qui  ce 
soit,  il  m'en  faut  acheter  (Corneille).  16.  Que  la  mort  la 
ravisse,  ou  qu'un  rival  I'emporte,  La  douleur  d'un  am  ant 
est  egalement  forte  (Corneille). 


Vocabulary. 


interdit,  interdicted. 

Homere,  Homer. 

I'ouvrage,  work. 

connu,  from  connaitre,  to  know. 

la  regie,  rule. 

le  flot,  wave. 

conge,  leave,  departure. 


I'hymen,  marriage, 
sens,  sense,  judgment, 
le  jeu,  game,  play, 
emporter,  carry  off. 
dompter,  tame, 
mourir,  to  die. 
traiter,  to  treat. 


190 


FEEi^CH   GEAMMAR. 


fort,  strong,  very, 
pris,   from  prendre,  to  take. 
ravir,  to  ravish, 
devenir,  to  become. 


doit,  from  devoir,  to  owe,  ought, 
vaille,  from  vale 
acheter,  to  buy, 
I'amant,  the  lover. 


EXERCISE   40. 

Sec.  181.— The  Infinitive  (Alone). 

L  Attendre  est  impossible,  agir  ne  Test  pas  moins. 

8.  A  quoi  bon  vouloir  sauver  ma  vie  ?  3.  N'aimer  que 
soi,  c'est  aimer  peu  cle  chose.  4.  Venez  nous  voir  demain. 
5.  Je  ne  sais  pas  nager.  6.  Chacun  dans  ce  miroir  pense 
voir  son  image.  7.  J'ai  vu  la  tempete  faire  tourbillonner  mon 
vaisseau  (Dumas).    8.  Travailler  f ortifie  le  cor^^s  et  I'esprit. 

9.  Naitre  avec  le  printemps,  mourir  avec  les  roses,  Voila 
du  papillon  le  destin  encliante  (Lamartine).  10.  Je 
sens  (152),  de  jour  en  jdur  deperir  mon  genie  (Boileau). 
11.  Quoi  !  personne  a  qui  me  fier  ici  (V.  Hugo).  12.  II 
lui  restait  deux  partis  a  prendre  ;  s'emparer  du  pouvoir 
sujireme  ou  descendre  de  sa  puissance  tribunitienne  (Clia- 
teaub.).  13.  Je  me  rappellais  tout  ce  que  j'avais  oui  (198) 
dire  a  Mentor.  14.  Les  grands  ne  croient  etre  nes  que 
pour  eux-memes  (Massillon).  15.  Quel  parti  prendre  ! 
16.  All  !  plutot  mille  fois  mourir  sous  les  poignards,  Que 
garder  a  ce  prix  le  trone  des  Caesars  (Arnault).  17.  Don- 
nez  moi  de  quoi  ecrire.  18.  C'est  un  homme  qui  a  de 
quoi  vivre.  19.  De  quel  front  soutenir  ce  facheux  entre- 
tien  !  (Racine). 

Vocabulary. 


attendre,  to  wait, 
agir,  to  act. 
vouloir,  to  wish, 
sauver,  to  save, 
nager,  to  swim, 
penser,  to  think, 
tourbillonner,  to  whirl, 
travailler,  to  labor, 
naitre,  to  be  born, 
descendre,  to  descend, 
tribunitienne,  tribune's. 
rappeler,  to  call  back. 


le  parti,  part,  side, 
ecrire,  to  write. 
vivre,  to  live, 
demain,  to-morrow. 
sais,  from  savoir,  to  know. 
la  tempete,  tempest. 
le  papillon,  butterfly. 
le  destin,  destiny,  lot. 
sens,  from  sentir,  to  feel. 
fier,  to  confide, 
rester,  to  remain. 
s'emparer  de,  to  seize  on. 


EXERCISES. 


191 


le  pouvoir,  power, 
la  puissance,  power, 
ouir,  to  hear. 
ne,  from  naitre. 


plutot,  rather, 
soutenir,  to  sustain. 


EXERCISE   41. 

Sees.  182-184.— Infinitive  with  ''  De  "  and  "  A." 

1.  Le  premier  commandement  de  la  religion  est  d'aimer 
Dieu.  *  2.  J'aime  mieux  mourir  que  de  trahir  mon  secret. 
3.  II  faillit  de  nous  arriver  un  grand  malheur.  4.  Allons, 
c'est  a  toi  de  parler.  5.  II  est  doux  de  revoir  les  murs  de 
la  patrie.  6.  O'est  un  maladie  d'esprit  que  de  souhaiter 
des  choses  impossibles  (Fenelon).  7.  Verite  que  j'implore, 
aclieve  (151,  1)  de  descendre  !  (Racine.)  8.  Que  vous  etes 
hardi,  de  vous  railler  de  la  reine  !  (V.  Hugo.)  9.  Si  je 
sais  le  secret  de  lui  plaire,  Je  sais  I'art  de  punir  un  rival 
t6meraire  (Racine).  10.  lis  n'ont  j-ien  a  gagner  a  se 
tromper  Tun  I'autre  (V.  Hugo).  11.  Le  diner  est  pret  k 
servir.     12.  Qui   pardonne   aisement   invite  a   I'offenser. 

13.  II  y  a  dans  certains  hommes  une  certaine  mediocrite 
d'esprit   qui   contribue  a  les  rendre  sages  (La  Bruyere). 

14.  II  parle  de  manidre  a  convaincre  les  juges  de  son  in- 
nocence (Acad.).  15.  La  vanite  commence  par  ternir  les 
bonnes  qualites  et  finit  par  les  detruire.  16.  Ce  serait 
trop  long  a  vous  expliquer  en  un  jour  (Scribe).  17.  La 
nolitique  ne  s'occupait  qu'a  maintenir  Fautorite  (Sesfur). 


Vocabulary. 


trahir,  to  betray. 

faillir,  to  fail,  not  quite  do. 

arriver,  to  happen. 

revoir,  to  see  again. 

le  mur,  wall. 

la  patrie,  one's  country. 

souhaiter,  to  expect. 

la  verite,  truth. 

plaire,  to  please. 

punir,  to  punish. 

temeraire,  rash. 

gagner,  to  gain,  earn. 


tromper,  to  deceive, 
la  vanite,  vanity. 
ternir,  to  tarnish. 
achever,  to  deign,  grant. 
hardi,  bold,  hardy, 
se  railler,  to  make  fun  of. 
le  diner,  dinner, 
oflfenser,  to  injure. 
convaincre,  to  convince. 
le  juge,  the  judge. 
detruire,  to  destroy. 
expliquer,  to  explain. 


192  FEENCH   GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE    42. 

Sees.  185-186,  2. — The  Participles,  Present  and  Past. 

1.  Les  animanx,  vivant  d'une  maniere  plus  conforme  a 
la  nature,  doivent  (154)  ^tre  sujets  a  moins  de  maux  que 
nous  (Rousseau).  2.  Si  le  barbier  lui  tira  de  sang  etant 
malade,  vous  lui  en  avez  tire  se  portant  bien  (Le  Sage). 
3.  Les  Eomains,  se  destinant  a  la  guerre,  et  le  regardant 
comme  le  seul  art,  ils  avaient  mis  tout  leur  esprit  a  la  per- 
fectionner  (Montesquieu).  4.  Je  ne  puis  cacher  a  Votre 
Majeste  les  craintes  qu'eprouvent  ses  fiddles  sujets  en  ne  la 
voyant  pas  reconnaitre  hautement  cette  grande  association 
(Dumas).  5.  Ainsi  notre  amitie,  triompliant  a  sou  tour, 
Vaincra  la  jalousie  en  cedant  a  I'amour  (Corneille).  6.  En 
disant  ces  mots,  les  larmes  lui  vinrent  aux  yeux.  7.  Le 
merite  et  la  vertu  sont  estimes  et  recherches.  8.  Quand 
elle  se  fut  aper9ue  (154)  de  son  erreur,  elle  fut  toute  lion- 
teuse.  9.  Eux  punis,  nous  pourrons  faire  admirer  au 
monde  la  liberte  (Ponsard).  10.  Cette  disposition  faite, 
nous  entrames  dans  la  salle  de  reception.  11.  J'evitais 
une  gr^le  de  coups  qui  seraient  tombes  sur  moi.  12.  Mon 
dme  demeure  suspendue. 

Vocabulary. 

vivre,  to  live, 
devoir,  to  owe,  ought, 
tirer,  to  draw,  take. 
se  porter,  to  carry  one's  self,  be. 
mis,  from  mettre,  to  place, 
puis,  from  pouvoir,  to  be  able, 
eprouver,  to  experience, 
reconnaitre,  to  recognize, 
vaincre,  to  conquer, 
ceder,  to  give  way. 
disant,  from  dire,  to  say. 
vinrent,  from  venir,  to  come. 


estimer,  to  esteem. 
le  barbier,  the  barber, 
larmes,  tears. 
la  gr^le,  hail, 
suspendre,  to  suspend, 
demeurer,  to  remain, 
tomber,  to  fall, 
eviter,  to  avoid, 
entrer,  to  enter, 
pourrons,  from  pouvoir. 
apercu,  from  apercevoir. 
rechercher,  to  seek  for. 


EXERCISE  43. 
Sec.  186,  3-5. — Perfect  Participle  continued. 

1.  Quelle  guerre  intestine  avons  nous  allumee  !     2.  L'e- 
v^que  de  Meaux  a  cree  une  langue  que  lui  Seul  a  parlee. 


EXERCISES.  193 

3.  La  traduction  que  j'en  ai  faite,  est  loin  d'atteindre  k  la 
force  de  I'original  (Voltaire).  4.  Tons  les  hommes  ont 
tou jours  quelque  petit  grain  de  folic  mele  a  leur  science 
(Voltaire).  5.  O'est  une  des  idees  les  plus  utiles  a  la 
morale  qu'il  y  ait  jamais  eu.  •  6.  Je  lui  ai  rendu  tons  les 
services  que  j'ai  du,  que  j'ai  pu  (lui  rendre).  7.  II  crut 
avoir  vu  des  miracles  et  meme  en  avoir  fait.  8.  Tout  le 
monde  m'a  offert  des  services,  et  personne  ne  m'en  a  rendu. 
9.  Savez-vous  les  peines  qu'ils  ont  a  souffrir  ?  10.  lis  se 
sont  presente  des  fleurs.  11.  II  n'est  pas  probable  que  vous 
eussiez  obtenu  le  consentement  de  votrepere,  si  je  n'avais 
pas  parle  en  votre  faveur.  12.  Je  les  ai  vues  f rapper. 
13.  Voila,  mon  fils,  le  sujet  des  larmes  que  tu  m'a  vue 
verser  (Florian).  14.  Les  airs  que  je  vous  ai  entendu 
chanter. 

Vocabulary. 

verser,  to  shed. 
I'ev^que,  bishop.    • 
la  langue,  language. 
la  traduction,  translation. 
la  morale,  morals,  ethics. 


creer,  to  create, 
atteindre,  to  reach,  attain, 
m^ler,  to  mix. 
dA,  from  devoir,  to  owe. 
pu,  from  pouvoir,  to  be  able, 
crut,  from  croire,  to  believe, 
vu,  from  voir,  to  see. 
obtenu,  from  obtenir,  obtain. 


le  sujet,  subject. 
larmes,  tears. 


EXERCISE  44. 

Sees.  187-192.— Adverbs. 

1.  On  se  repent  rarement  de  parler  pen,  mais  tres 
souvent  de  parler  trop.  2.  Cette  robe  coute  trop  cher. 
3.  Comment  vous  portez-vous?  Tres  bien,  je  vous  re- 
mercie.  4.  L'esprit  retourne  au  ciel,  d-ont  il  est  descendu. 
5.  Je  ne  sais  plus  oii  j'en  suis.  6.  La  sagesse  inutile  au 
monde  est  pire  que  certaines  folies  qui  servent  au  moins 
a  Tamuser.  7.  D'ici  je  ne  veux  pas  sortir,  je  m'y  trouve 
trop  bien.  8.  Ce  mal  lui  a  pris  tout-a-coup,  comme  il  y 
pensait  le  moins.  9.  La  politique  a  ses  martyrs  comme  la 
religion,  car  il  y  a  eu  des  hommes,  devoues  aux  principes 
de  la  liberte  des  peuples,  qui  ont  ete  autant  persecutes 
que  les  premiers  Chretiens  a  Rome.     10.     II  est  de  bles- 


194  FRENCH   GRAMMAR. 

sures  dont  un  coeur  genereux  pent  rarement  gnerir  (Vol- 
taire). 11.  Un  vieillard  amonreux  merite  qu'on  en  rie. 
12.  Comme  le  soleil  chasse  les  tenebres,  ainsi  la  science 
chasse  Terrenr  (Acad.). 

Vocabulary. 


comment,  how  ? 
comme,  as,  how. 
tres,  very. 
pire,  worse, 
au  moias,  at  least, 
car,  for. 


autant  que,  as  much  as. 

guerir,  to  heal,  recover. 

rier,  to  laugh. 

la  blessure,  wound. 

le  vieillard,  old  man. 

tenebres,  shades,  shadows. 


EXERCISE!   45. 

Sees.  103-194.— Negatives.— "  Ne." 

1.  Je  ne  puis  point,  a  la  verite,  ne  point  admirer  Icnr 
courage,  mais  je  ne  puis  anssinepas  sentir  la  i)laie  cruellc 
que  leur  mort  a  faite  a  mon  coeur,  et  ne  point  hair  et  de- 
tester  les  Atheniens,  auteurs  de  cette  malheureuse  guerre 
(Rollin).  2.  Je  n'ai  vu,  de  ma  vie,  un  tel  homme.  3.  Je 
n'en  dirai  rien  a  personne.  4.  Je  ne  sais  (155)  ce  que  c'est. 
5.  II  n'y  a  de  puissance  que  dans  la  conviction.  6.  Je  ne 
dois  (154,  N.),  ni  ne  veux  (155),  ni  ne  puis  (155)  vous 
obeir.  7.  Le  domestique  n^est  pas  encore  rentre,  ni  le 
chien  non  plus.  8.  Je  vais  vous  rapporter  le  fait,  mais 
n'en  soulliez  mot  a  ame  qui  vive.  9.  lln'est  toujours  bon 
d'etre  trop  politique  (Rotrou).  10.  Je  n'ai  Jamais  rien 
accorde  a  la  menace  (Scribe).  11.  EUe  n'est  ni  belle  ni 
riche.  12.  Suspendez  votre  marche.  II  ne  faut  tenter 
Dieu  (De  Vigny).  13.  II  ne  salt  ce  qu'il  veut.  14.  Nous 
n'avions  guere  que  neuf  ans. 


Vocabulary. 


sentir,  to  feel. 

hair,  to  hate. 

tel,  such. 

sais,  from  s  avoir,  know. 

dois,     '*     devoir,  owe. 

puis,     "     pouvoir,  be  able, 

veux,  "    vouloir,  wish. 


vais,  from  aller,  go. 
la  plaie,  injury. 
la  guerre,  war. 
la  vie,  life, 
rapporter,  to  relate. 
soufHer,  to  breathe, 
tenter,  to  tempt. 


EXERCISES.  105 

EXERCISE   46. 

Sees.  195-196. — Negatives  continued. 

1.  Non,  non,  le  consiilat  n'est  point  fait  pour  son  dge. 
2.  Aucun  n'est  prophete  cliez  soi.  3.  Je  serai t  morte 
avant  qu'il  n'entre.  4.  Ne  craignez-vous  2)as  que  monsieur 
le  due  ne  reconnaisse  que  c'est  vous-meme?  5.  Prends 
garde  qu'on  ne  te  voie.  6.  Un  cliretien  doit  aimer,  non 
seulement  ses  amis,  mais  meme  ses  ennemis.  7.  Prendrai- 
je  cela?  Non  pas,  s'il  vous  plait.  8.  La  jiatrie  est  plus 
digne  de  respect  que  pere  ni  mere.  9.  11  doit  apprehender 
que  cette  occasion  ne  lui  ecliappe  (La  Bruyere).  10.  Crai- 
gnez  (153)  que  le  ciel  rigoureux  ne  vous  liaisse  assez  pour 
exaucer  vos  voeux  (Racine).  11.  Elle  ne  redoutait  pas 
moins  que  le  peuple  ne  la  rend  it  responsable  (Thierry). 
12.  fivitez  qu'il  ne  vous  parle.  13.  Doutez-vous  que  mes 
voeux  ne  soient  honorables?  (Dumas).  14.  II  ne  s'en  faut 
pas  de  beaucoup  que  la  somme  n'y  soit  (Gram.  Nationale). 

15.  Que  leur  tete  soit  livree  a  I'expiation,  si  vous  n'aimez 
mieux  que  I'expiation  retombe  sur  votre  tete  (Thierry). 

16.  Elle  ne  voyait  aucun  etre  souffrant  sans  que  son 
visage  n'exprimat  la  peine  qu'elle  enressentait  (St.  Pierre). 

17.  J'entends  1-e  philosophe  et  non  I'homme  d'etat  (Pon- 
sard).  18.  Que  Je  me  trompe  ou  non,  respectoz  ma  chi- 
mere  (Segur).  19.  Est-il  un  seul  de  vous  qui  ne  tremble 
pour lui? 

Vocabulary. 


chez  soi,  at  home, 
avant  que,  before  that, 
echapper,  to  escape, 
craindre,  to  fear, 
eviter,  to  avoid, 
livrer,  to  give  up, 
ressentir,  to  experience. 


entrer,  to  enter. 

garde,  care. 

plait,  from  plaire,  to  please. 

exaucer,  to  grant 

redouter,  to  doubt. 

retomber,  to  i*etum,  recoil. 

exprimer,  to  express. 

se  trojnper,  to  be  mistaken 


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